Chapter 1: the establishment and development of the Weimar Rupublic Jan 1919 - Jan 1933 Flashcards
How serious were the consequences of the First World war for Germany?
Political
Social
Economic
Impact of Treaty of Versailles on land, the military and reparations
Political consequences
Serious:
- new form of gov. -> revolution
- German sailors mutinied after arrest of leaders
- unrest among workers in cities who had established workers councils => concern for Ebert: no civil war, full-scale revolution like Russia
- new constitution drawn up + peace talk began -> people viewed with suspicion - sig. change from old autocratic system (under rule of coalition now) to democratic
- old military leaders fostered stab-in-back myth that Ebert stabbed Germany in back
Not serious:
- abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. power passed to Council of People’s Representatives temporarily until national assembly elected
- Ebert able to avoid revolution by keeping support of industrialists (powerful - made tanks etc. for war). Negotiated Central Working Association Agreement with trade unions (work for 8hr day and TU rep)
- left-wing divided between KPD and SD
- new constitution and peace talks - democracy now
- Ebert = politically competent
Social consequences
Serious:
- war furthered divisions within Germany -> gap in living standards much bigger
- restrictions placed on workers earnings during war
- income of workers stagnated/ declined due to inflation, shortage grew worse due to British Naval Blockade putting pressure on Germany
- divisions between city and country
- women working: change in tradition
- 600,000 widows and 2 mil. children w/o fathers
Not serious:
- factory owners made vast profits
- women called to work in factory to maintain income levels
Economic consequences
Serious:
- war pensions put a strain on the government (pension payments consume 1/3 of budget)
- national income fallen to 1/3 of 1913’s
- industrial production fallen (2/3 of pre-war levels)
- Germany = virtually bankrupt and TofV further weakened country
- millions of war bonds from ordinary people eroded by inflation (100 marks in 1913 vs 30 in 1918) => lost wealth
The impact of the Treaty of Versailles
Lost 10% land, 12.5% of population, 16% of coal and 48% of iron industry
Lost all overseas colonies
gov= weakened
society= struggling and weak
position of Germany= weakened -> not allowed to join League of Nations etc. (less power)
Land losses
Land lost from every border
- Schleswig -> Denmark
- Upper Silesia, West Prussia & Posen -> Poland
- land -> Czechoslovakia
- Alsace-Lorraine -> returned to France
- Eupen & Malmedy -> Belgium
- Saar -> Legaue of Nations
Not allowed to unite with Austria
Military losses
army reduced to 100,000 men
navy reduced to 15,000 men
forbidden to have tanks, aircraft, submarines and poison gas
no. of ships limited
Rhineland permanently demilitarised and Allied troops to occupy for 15 years
Reparations
Reparations Commission established and reported in 1921. Germany had to pay £6000 million in instalments
forced to accept guilt for starting war (War Guilt Clause 231) => not publicly v. popular as Germans believed allies started war but forced to accept due to British Naval Blockade
Overall impact of the Treaty of Versailles
some now live under foreign rule/ occupied areas
military losses and land loss dented national pride
BUT Germany still powerful (Austro-Hungarian Empire collapse and defeat of Russia) => strongest power in central Europe)
German people struggled to see positives (social tension)
How serious were the challenges to the Weimar Republic 1919-23?
The nature of the constitution
Communist revolts
Kapp Putsch
The invasion of the Ruhr
Hyperinflation
Munich Putsch
Strengths of the constitution
universal franchise (every adult has a vote) -> most democratic country in Europe
proportional representation -> true democracy
people in diff. cabinets rarely changed
Article 48: all constitutions have provisions for similar powers in states of emergency
survived attacks from 1918-23
no worse than any other constitution in 1920s - Richard Evans
Weaknesses of the constitution
created instability
proportional representation in Reichstag -> weak : no majority and small parties => coalitions (unstable)
-> frequent changes in gov. undermined confidence in new democracy (want right wing)
20 diff. cabinets from Jan 1919-30
-> allowed NSDAP to gain foothold
opponents preferred less democratic
system
presidential power undermined the system -> Article 48 (emergency decree) happened during Ruhr and hyperinflation crisis in 1923-24 and again in Wall Street Crash and Muller gov. collapse in 1930-33)
cannot cope with political pressure
Communist revolts
5th - 12th Jan 1919: revolt
-> hoped soviet-style gov. would be established and industry nationalised after war (was not) -> Independent Socialist left Council of People’s Representation to join KDP
Next four months: series of strikes and worker’s council set up in cities (e.g Munich and Bremen) => crushed by Freikorps
March 1920: KDP able to take control of much of the Ruhr => crushed by army
Why were the communist revolts
Spartacists attempted to seize power in Berlin
had to call the military in which led to the Kapp Putsch later
series of strikes in the next four months
workers councils set up in citizens - many believed soviet-style revolution planned
March 1920: take much of Ruhr (KDP)
Why were the Communist revolts not a threat?
too few workers, trade unions and SD supported rising
had inadequate armed forces and revolt did not spread through Germany
military and Freikorps able to suppress
communist leaders Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht murdered
strikes = brutally crushed by Freikorps
army and Freikorps crushed KDP take over of Ruhr and many then saw left as undemocratic
threats from the right
many in right (particularly army officers and civil servants from regime of kaiser) disliked the new Republic
=> some wanted to remove it, others wanted to rebuild their position
patriotic and anti-Semitic groups that existed in WWI started to reform
-> German Worker’s Party under Anton Drexter: Hitler attended and they believed Germany had been destroyed by the jews
-> German National People’s Party (DNVP) nationalists who wanted to combat left and establish conservative nationalist government
Kapp Putsch
Threat:
-gov. began to disband Friekorps so one group marched to Verlin and proclaimed Wolfgang Kapp as Chancellor (ex-military)
- army refused to crush rising so the gov. fled. Took Berlin
- success in Bavaria where army installed right-wing gov. (hotbed for radicalism)
- elections of June 1920 show loss of support for democratic parties (eg. SPD) and increased support for the right wing (determined to abandon social and economic reforms)
- > encouraged further hostility from workers - further left-wing uprising is in 1921-23 and extreme right contributed to grow as disputes with Allies over peace terms and reparations created further resentment
Not a threat:
-trade unions called a general strike (paralysed public services) the rising was defeated. Trade unions have support of workers who help to stop the recount but are not supporters of communism due to failures of Russia and extreme nature of KPD
- army eventually stop revolt
- localised support, not national
The invasion of the Ruhr
Jan 1923: Germany fell behind on reparations payments of coal and timber -> gov. of France and Belgium sent troops to occupy the Ruhr.
helped to unite German people behind gov.
- > reparation payments stopped
- > workers in Ruhr went on strike (left wing workers who were supported by the gov. who payed them)
- > French brought in own workers as a result to operate mines
resistance added to economic problems
- inflation & gov. had to print more money. August 1923: Germany currency virtually worthless (starvation in towns and cities as food became unobtainable)
- new gov. (Great Coalition) formed under Stresemann & passive resistance ended - have to go back to work
- > caused anger among nationalists (‘surrender to allies’) - encouraged Munich Putsch
Stresemann had no choice (some DNVP planning a coup to bring in dictatorship, KPD planning uprisings in Saxony, Hamburg, plans for nationalist coup in Bavaria)
Why did the invasion of the Ruhr destabilise the Republic?
land had been invaded
inflation and starvation -> tension
new gov. had to be formed and passive resistance ended - surrender to allies
faced with internal problems from DNVP, KPD and far right
politically and militarily weak
Hyperinflation
cost of war and reparation caused inflation (493.2 marks to a $ in 1922)
-> needed to print more money to pay striking workers and by Oct. 1923 4,200,000,000,000 marks to a $)
Richard Evans: “money lost its meaning completely”
Decline in value ruined many (pensioners, civil servants, middle class on fixed incomes)
- black market & bartering flourished
- people had to use wheelbarrows etc. to hold the money needed for food
some people did well: people able to pay off loans inflation made worthless
Why was hyperinflation a threat to the Republic?
loss of money/economic ruin diminished support
people had been impoverished so turned to extreme left and right
Why was hyperinflation not a threat to the republic?
Stresemann took decisive action and ended passive resistance, co-operated with the Allies and brought in a new currency, destroying the old worthless mark
helped by willingness of many Germans to give Republic a chance
opponents = divided (von Kahr, von Seisser and von Lossow all backed out of Munich Putsch)
Dawes Plan: Stresemann solved issue with political will
Munich Putsch
by 1923, Bavaria = ruled by Conservative Catholic regime that wanted to unite all right-wing elements and restore values of pre-war Germany
Bavaria become home to nationalist groups like Nazi Party, which developed under Hitler’s leadership from 1921
-> joined association of right-wing groups in region and planned a putsch in Sept. 1923
plan: putsch in Munich -> match on Berlin -> establish a military dictatorship with support of Ludendorff
8th Nov. : coup started & Hitler seized state governor
- > police broke up putsch and killed 16 Nazis
- > Hitler arrested & given minimum sentence
Threat of Munich Putsch
- putsch of right-wing, traditional elite who have formed an association
plan: remove democracy and install a dictatorship
Hitler’s trial generated public support
Hitler given min. sentence w/ leniency-> judiciary arnt even pro-Republic
Hitler seized state governor
‘Munich putsch = not a threat
police quickly broke up putsch and Hitler arrested
Hitler backstabbed (not enough nationalistic support for Hitler like Kapp had)
When was the hotbed of threats for the Weimar Republic?
1923
- invasion of Ruhr
- hyperinflation
- Munich Putsch
How serious were the challenges faced by the Republic?
Serious :
-Republic failed to appreciate extent
of opposition from right but this was more serious than the left
-election results saw a move away from democratic parties
-supporters of democracy found it difficult to create and maintain working coalition governments (longest from 1919-23 lasted 18 months)
-hyperinflation and Ruhr crisis
Not serious:
- left not as serious of a threat as not powerful enough to lead revolution
- Kapp & Hitler in early 1920 = too weak and disorganised
- no alternative to Republic in 1923
- hostility not reached unbearable levels and it could be directed at French & Belgian forces
- workers not suffering badly as they would be in 1933
How stable was the Weimar Republic in the ‘golden years’ 1924-29?
Economy Political stability Living and working conditions Cultural achievements Foreign relations Situation in 1929
Evidence the Republic recovered : Economy
introduction of Rentenmark restored confidence in the currency as old mark destroyed
some compensation for those who suffered
industrial production recovered. GDP increased
1924: Dawes Plan: US financed expansion in German gov. expenditure & loans were made. Revised 800 million marks in loans
1929 Young Plan: reduce reparations and increase time they need to be payed back over (remove strain)
foreign investments helped to stimulate industry. Germany one of worlds leading manufacturers by 1930 -> money from Dawes plan used to stimulate industry & manufacturing
more efficient
empowered the workers due to better conditions etc. -> workers work more and create money. gov. decided to rely on workers
Evidence Republic did not recover: Economy
compensation so little that many remained resentful
increase in cost of exports which forced industrialists to cut costs & make workers redundant
baby boom before war meant more workers -> unemployment (2 mil in Jan 1928)
1924 Dawes Plan: artificial and short term. recovery is too quick - evidence it is superficial
Young Plan caused resentment among nationalist groups who wanted reparations cancelled completely
Germany dependent on US
increase in no. of strikes as profits increase, ah over whether wages should should increase
employers angry about comp. state arbitration which argued favoured workers
->authoritarian regime = good
global over-production in farming decreased prices and left 1/2 of all German farmers w/o profit
support from protestors (like Schleswig-Holstein) meant peasants began to favour NSDAP
Evidence of political stability
- democratic parties by 1928 had 136 more seats than radical parties (NSDAP had less than 3% of vote in 1928)
- no more attempted revolutions after 1923 & an opponents of Ebert= ‘Republic is beginning to settle’ -> further encouraged by SD heading a coalition after 1928 election for the first time since 1920
- middle class losing suspicion of socialism and willing to work together
- Prussia = stable coalition involving SPD, Centre & DDP parties
they made it work
Evidence of political instability
unstable coalitions governed
SPD & DVP disagreed over social and economic policies -> co-operation = bad
DNVP disliked Stressemann’s policy of rapprochement w/ France and Britain
Centre Party had more right-wing policies and so cooperation with left-liberal DDP & SPD = difficult
DVP lost support as special interest parties gained support winning 14% of vote in 1928 (more than 2 liberal parties DVP and DDP)
1925 election of Hindenburg as president
support for the Republic was lukewarm and aim was to exclude SPD by bringing in DNVP -> suggests support for old style authoritarian regime and old elite
Evidence of good living and working conditions
wages for unionised workers rose and working hours were reduced to 8 hour day -> increased standard of living which was further enhanced by provision of welfare benefits and pensions
problems being tackled in some cities with mayors introducing recovery programmes
Evidence of poor living and working conditions
system was costly and attracted a number of curitiba -> argued the welfare state was so costly increase tax burden on business
cost of welfare was greater than for reparations
agricultural wages were only 1/2 the national average by 1929
extremes of wealth and poverty still present
short term improvements and heavily reliant on money from abroad
Good cultural achievements
tolerant atmosphere of Republic allowed new art forms to finish on a great scale
significant developments in architecture, painting, cinema and the theatre
architecture flourished w/ development of Bauhaus group
golden age for cinema epic and advanced films produced (e.g Metropolis)
Poor cultural achievements
theatre often criticism of old order
prominence of Jewish creative artists caused controversy
‘All Quiet on the Western Front’ angered nationalists bc it depicted wartime military in bad light
risqué songs etc. gave impression of corruption
Good foreign relations
Stresemann became major international figure (instrumental in ending Ruhr occupation and stabilising currency. Successful leader who drew support from middle classes)
Germany joined League of Nations in 1926 -> no longer an outcast
relations improved with France through Loearno Treaties in 1925
Poor foreign relations
Ignores criticism and attacks made by nationalists of his negotiating w/ Allies and former enemies (criticised Young Plan and DNVP forced Stresemann to hold referendum on issue of reparations)
move towards Western ideals - isolation from Russian and nationalism - annoyed traditional elites
Why was the Nazi Party able to gain support and come to power in the period from 1929 to Jan 1933?
Economic conditions:
-Great Depression
Political conditions:
-instability of Weimar
Nazi party itself:
-key characteristics
Link between them all
The impact of the Great Depression on economy
-collapse of US economy -> US businesses and banks curtailed loans to Germany and recalled loans already made
-unemployment continued to rise (already reached 2.5 million in spring 1929) and as a result of the crash, unemployment further increased (6.014 million in Jan 1933)
=> people had less money to spend - demand for goods decreased so more people lost their jobs. 1932: 33% of workforce unemployed
- gov. revenue fell due to lack of taxes but gov. expenditure rose due to increase in benefit payments made to unemployed
- July 1931: collapse of Austrian bank Kredit Anstalt meant people withdrew their money -> gov forced to support them which added to economic crisis
- France blocked an emergency loan to Germany
Economic problems fuelled political instability
Impact of Great Depression on society and politics
Social:
-mass poverty -> unable to pay rent or feed family (malnutrition common, diseases became more prevalent, poor diet and poor housing, children suffered and mental stress
Political:
-benefit payments struggled to cope with long-term demand of mass unemployment -> political crisis which weakened the Republic
Why was Hitler able to rise to power?
Impact of the Great Depression and Republic’s inability to deal with it
left were given opportunity to rise but people were afraid of communism so turned to the right
How did Hitler rebuild the Nazi Party and were these decisions successful?
Rebuild the party
The depression
Hitler himself
Support of industrialists
Organisation
Promises to voters
Weakness of opposition
Propaganda
Rebuild the party
1921: Hitler became leader of National Socialist German Worker’s Party and attempted to seize power through Munich Putsch
-> failure but brought Hitler national publicity
led to a change in tactics: Hitler decided to win power through ballot box rather than force
while in prison he wrote Mein Kampf and established a network of party - affiliated organisations once out of prison (e.g Hitler Youth & Students League). Put Goebbels in charge of propaganda
The Depression
provided party with electoral breakthrough as gov. appeared weak, unemployment rose and Nazis offered public work schemes and many people feared communism due to events in Soviet Union so people (practically middle class) turned to the Nazis
-> seen in 1930 elections
Hitler himself
Hitler was portrayed as a strong leader - the type of person who was needed in the crisis
- > propaganda and rallies portrayed him as superman
- > appeared charismatic and made great use of oratory skills at mass rallies
Support of industrialists
many industrialists were frightened by communism & threat to business
therefore people abandoned traditional support and gave it to the Nazis
also included financial backing with Hugenburg making donations to the party -> this allowed Hitler to finance election campaigns
Organisation
Nazi Party had been reorganised during the 1920s and local party leaders were well trained to ensure they have a clear and consistent message
Promises to voters
party = flexible approach to policies so it therefore appeared to be able to offer something to every group in society
unemployed-> jobs
farmers -> higher prices
shopkeepers -> protection etc.
Weakness of opposition
other political parties = weak and underestimated party as they believed they were so unrealistic that voters would not trust them and disregarded the threat that they posed
Propaganda
helped win & maintain support
Goebbels: in charge of propaganda and he ensured local groups were trained in the art & were excellent at adopting new techniques to spread Nazi message
Goebbels flew Hitler all over Germany in 1932 as he knew Hitler was the key to Nazi success. Hitler spoke at rallies and parades. he was also depicted on posters as a ‘saviour’
-> promised to make Germany great again and attacked communism (created disturbances at communist rallies so SA could crush it -> seen to deal w/ threat unlike gov.)
Government in 1929-1933
Hermann Muller
Heinrich Bruning
Franz von Papen
General Kurt von Schleicher
Adolf Hitler
Hermann Muller
SPD
May 1928-March 1930
Parliamentary Government consisting of coalition
- Great Coalition government of left-wing and moderate parties.
- Issue of unemployment insurance system created a crisis as different parties wanted different approaches to the problem
SPD = did not want to cut benefits DVP = wanted cuts & many industrialists argued system too expensive
Compromise failed & cabinet refunded when Hindenburg refused Muller emergency policy
Heinrich Bruning
Centre Parry
March 1930-May 1932
Presidential government which ruled using emergency decree. collation cabinet
-Right-wing conservative
Banned SA
-did not have majority so he stated that he was defeated he would ask for Reichstag to be dissolved and rule by emergency decree
-> followed failure to win support for increase taxes & cutting welfare spending
failed to deal with depression-> diminished
reliance on rule by decree = end of parliamentary democracy
aims: create crisis to end reparations? worried about hyperinflation?
Franz von Papen
Ex-centre party (right wing)
June - December 1932
Presidential government. many non-party cabinet members (traditional elite)
Aim: create more authoritarian state
unable to command majority and able to call fresh elections to win one
-> failed & oppostition passed a vote of no confidence in him
Army unwilling to support Papen -> dismissed
General Kurt von Schleicher
Non-party
December 1932-January 1932
Presidential government with many non-party Cabinet members
Attempted to persuade some Nazis to join his gov. hoping they would win him more support (Hitler would not allow it)
Attempted to win support of SPD & trade unions w/ promise of economic reforms -> backstairs intrigue
-> Hitler determined to remove Schleicher (who unable to get majority) & so lost support of Hindenburg. Hindenburg got Papen to talk to Hitler. Hindenburg removed support from S
Hitler’s appointment at Chancellor
Nazi-Nationalist Coalition
