Chapter 1: Science of human development Flashcards
Scientific Method
- Ask Questions
- Develop Hypothesis
- Test Hypothesis
- Draw Conclusion
- Report the Result
Replication
Repeating a study, usually using different participants (diff. age, SES, culture)
Nature
- traits, capacities, and limitations inherited at conception are nature
- influence of the genes that people inherit
Nurture
- nurture includes all environmental influences that occur after conception, from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the culture of the nation
DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY
The idea that people vary in how sensitive (for better or worse) they are to particular experiences, either because of their genes or because of their past experiences. (Also called differential sensitivity.)
Dandelions
hardy, growing and thriving in good soil or bad, with or without ample sun and rain. They are not susceptible to the environment
Orchids
only thrive in perfect condition
Life-Span Perspective
An approach to the study of human development that includes all phases, from birth to death
Each aspect of life is:
Multidirectional
- physical health, intellectual growth, social interaction
- up, down, stable erratic
Critical period
Time when a particular development must occur. If it does not, as when something toxic prevents that growth, then it cannot develop later
Sensetive period
A time when a particular developmental growth is most likely to occur, although it may still happen later
Examples of multicontextual aspects
the social context:
historic
socioeconomic
cultural
Ecological-systems approach
A perspective on human development that considers all of the influences from the various contexts of development. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)
Cohort
People born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies, and cultural shifts at the same ages.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
A person’s position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class.)
Culture
system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions.
Social construction
An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality.
difference-equals-deficit error
- The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior
-leads people to believe that people from other cultures are to be pitied, feared, criticized, and changed.
Ethnic Group
People whose ancestors were born in the same region. Usually they share a language, culture, and/or religion.
Intersectionality
The idea that the various identities need to be combined. This is especially important in determining modes of privilege and discrimination.
Plasticity
The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics are moldable, and thus can change.
- The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics are moldable, and thus can change
- A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences.
Dynamic System Approach
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences.
Multi-directional
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences
Multi-contextual
Human lives are embedded in many contexts, including historical conditions, economic constraints, and family patterns
Multi-cultural
Many cultures — not just between nations but also within them — affect how people develop
Plastic
Every individual, and every trait within each individual, can be altered at any point in the life span. Change is ongoing, although it is neither random nor easy
Psychoanalitc Theory
- By Freud
- A theory of human development that contends that irrational, unconscious drives and motives underlie human behavior.
- development in the first six years affects personality, impulses, and emotions lifelong
Freud (psychosexual)
Oral Stage
- Birth to 1
- The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby’s body, and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities.
Freud (psychosexual)
Anal Stage
- 1-3
- The anus is the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby’s body, and toilet training is the most important activity.
Freud (psychosexual)
Phallic Stage
- 3-6
- The phallus (the Latin word for “penis”) is the most important body part, and pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys are proud of their penises; girls wonder why they don’t have them.
Freud (psychosexual)
Latency
- 6-11
- Not really a stage, latency is an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet; psychic energy flows into sports, schoolwork, and friendship.
Freud (psychosexual)
Genital Stage
- Adolscence
- The genitals are the focus of pleasurable sensations, and the young person seeks sexual stimulation and satisfaction in heterosexual relationships.
- Freud believed that the genital stage lasts throughout adulthood. He also said that the goal of a healthy life is “to love and to work.”
Eriksons 8 stages
Trust v mistrust
Autonomy v shame
Initiative v guilt
Industry v. Inferiority
Identity v. Role diffusion
Intimacy v. Isolation
Generativity v stagnation
Integrity v despair
Behaviourism
A theory of human development that studies observable actions. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes how people learn to do what they do
Classical Conditioning
When a living creature learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the sound) with a meaningful stimulus (the food), gradually reacting to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one
Operant Conditioning
The learning process that reinforces or punishes behavior. (Also called instrumental conditioning.)
Social Learning Theory
A theory that emphasizes the influence of other people. Even without reinforcement, people learn via role models. (Also called observational learning.)
Cognitive Theory
A theory of human development that focuses on how people think. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Piaget (who, when, what)
- Cognitive theorist
- began by observing his own three infants and later studied thousands of older children
- realized that babies are curious and thoughtful, trying to understand their experiences
Periods of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
- Birth to 2
Characteristics
- Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection.
Major Development
- Infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions.
Periods of cognitive development
Preoperational
- 2 to 6
Characteristics
- Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective.
Major Development
- The imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and social influence.
Periods of Cognitive Development
Concrete operational
- 6 to 11
Characteristics
- Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience.
Major Development
- By applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, number, classification, and many other scientific ideas.
Periods of Cognitive Development
Formal operational
- 12 through adulthood
Characteristics
-Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion.
Major Development
- Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning.
How to achieve cognitive equilibrium?
interpret new experiences through the lens of preexisting ideas.
Three Methods of Science
Observation
Experiments
Survey
Scientific Observation
Watching and recording participants’ behavior in a systematic and objective manner — in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data.
- Observations can occur in a naturalistic setting such as a home, or in a laboratory, where scientists observe what people do.
Experiment
A research method in which the researcher adds one variable (called the independent variable) and then observes the effect on another variable (called the dependent variable) in order to learn if the independent variable causes change in the dependent variable.
- typically impose a particular treatment on a group of participants or expose them to a specific condition and then note how they respond.
Survey
A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means.
- information is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other means
Cross-Sectional Research
A research design that compares people who differ in age but not in other important characteristics.
Ex.when reading ability is compared between children who are 5, 8, and 11 years old, it seems that until third grade children are “learning to read,” and then from age 8 onward they are “reading to learn.”
Longitudinal Research
A research design that follows the same individuals over time.
Cross-Sequantial Research
A hybrid study multiple groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach), follow them over the years (a longitudinal approach), and then combine the results.
Correlation
Usually a number between +1.0 and −1.0 that indicates whether and how much two variables are related. Correlation indicates whether an increase in one variable will increase or decrease another variable. Correlation indicates only that two variables are somehow related, not that one variable causes the other to increase or decrease.
positive if both variables tend to increase together or decrease together, negative if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases, and zero if no connection is evident
Correlation
only that the variables are connected somehow
- one could cause the other
Quantitive Research
Research that provides data expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.
Qualitative Research
Research that considers individual qualities instead of quantities (numbers)
- interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds
