Chapter 1: Research methodology Flashcards
Method of intuition
Information is accepted as true because it feels right. Relies on a hunch or instinct to answer questions
Method of authority
Finding answers by seeking out an authority on the subject. Consulting an expert.
Rational method
Rationalism. Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning
Empirical method
Empiricism. Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience; seeing is believing.
Fallacy
An incorrect conclusion derived from faulty evidence.
Fallacy type: Argument from ignorance
Assuming that unless something is proven to be false, it must be true. Resists on the concept of falsification or discomfiting evidence.
Fallacy type: shifting the burden of proof
The person who would ordinarily have the burden of proof in an argument attempts to switch that burden to the other person. “If you don’t think it’s real then prove it”
Non sequitur
It does not follow. The conclusion doesn’t follow the premise (starting point doesn’t lead to the end point). Ex: hard work and benefits
Types of fallacy: slippery slope
Conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, the eventually thru a series of small steps, B, C ect. will occur
Scientific method steps
Observe, form a hypothesis, use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction, evaluate prediction by making systematic, planned observations, use observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis
Variables
Factors
Hypothesis
Possible explanation, best guess, describes/explains a relationship between variables.
Deductive reasoning
Big to small. General statement used to make a prediction about a specific observation.
Inductive reasoning
Small to big. Specific observations to general observations.
Pseudoscience
A system of ideas often presented as science but lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research. Bad because it takes funding from other projects, takes trust away from scientists, and give false hope. Ex: aroma therapy, astrology, autism study.
Research process
Find a research idea, form a hypothesis, determine how you will define and measure your variables, identify the participants or subjects for the study, select s research strategy, select a research design, conduct the study, evaluate the data, report the results, refine or reformulate your research idea
Find a research idea
Select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question
Form a hypothesis
Must be logical, testable, falsifiable/refutable, and positive.
Determine how you will define and measure your variables
What you will be observing and how
Identify the participants or subjects for the study
Decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment. Participants if human, subjects if nonhuman.
Select a research strategy
Determined by the type of question asked and ethics and other constraints.
Select a research design
Making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study.
Conduct the study
Collecting the data.
Evaluate the data
Using various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data.
Report the results
Observations and results must be public. What was done, what was found, and how the findings were interpreted.
Refine or reformulate your research idea
Results that support a hypothesis lead to new questions by testing the boundaries of the result or refining the original research question. Process that keeps going.
Sources and research ideas
Personal interests and curiosities, casual observation, reports of others’ observations, practical problems or questions, behavioral theories
Personal interests and curiosities
What interests you or curious. Generate ideas for research based on your own interests and concerns.
Casual observation
Watching behavior of other people or animals you encounter daily.
Reports of others’ observations
Reports of observations made by others.
Practical problems or questions
Issues such as your job, your family relationships, your schoolwork, or elsewhere in the world around you.
Behavioral theories
Offer explanations for behavior or try to explain why different environmental factors lead to different behaviors.
Psych info
General where to start. Millions and millions of articles like books and journals ect.
Psych article
Full articles. Only from 80 sources, more limited, published by APA, journals.
Primary source
A firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individual who actually conducted the research and made observations. Ex: Research essay.
Secondary source
A description or summary of another person’s work. Written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed. Ex: textbook, med analysis, or reviews.
Practical problems
Stemming from daily life. Ex: placement of audio controls for less distracted driving. Veterans coming home with PTSD and looking for treatment.
Behavioral theories
Testing predictions that are part of a theory. Ex: with PTSD, looking at how flashbacks work neurology
Critical thinking
An intellectually disciplined process or actively and skillfully, conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information. Clear, rational, open minded, and informed by evidence.
Process of critical thinking
Ask important questions and define important problems clearly and precisely, gather and asses relevant information, arrive at well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards.
Type of fallacy: tu quoque
You too. Charging an adversary with being or doing what they criticize in others. To discredit the validity of someone’s argument by pointing out their failure to act in accordance with the claim.
Type of fallacy: post hoc ergo propter hoc
Assumes if A occurred after B, then B must have caused A.
Types of fallacy: false binary opposition
The “false dilemma”. Posing a choice as either-or, when there are other less extreme alternatives. Black and white thinking. Ex: nature vs. nurture, instead of a complex interface and integration or both.
Hallmarks of science
Science is empirical, science is public, science is objective.
Science
Characteristics of scientific explanations. Rigorously evaluated; constantly for consistency with evidence, generality, and parsimony.
Applied research
Intended to answer practical questions or solve practical, real life problems.
Basic research
Research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge. Evaluates constructs, mechanisms, and theories.
Why conduct a lit search
Avoiding needless duplication effort, getting ideas about variables to include, design, materials, and procedures, keeping yourself up to date on empirical and theoretical issues
Method of tenacity
Holding onto ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition
Falsifiability
Karl Popper: science proceeds by falsification. Hypothesis and theories must be stated so predictions from them could be shown as false. Methods of evaluating new evidence must include possibility that the data will falsify the theory.
ESP and little free men/invincible unicorn
Phenomena can’t be demonstrated when watched
Constructs
Hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory.
Operationalism
The attempt to define all scientific concepts in terms of specifically described operations or measurement and observation. Important because evidence supporting a concept or theory can be replicated by anyone with the knowledge and skills to do so.
Reliability
Consistency of a measure, over time, within the instrument itself. Ex: going on a scale twice, not changing anything and getting 2 different weights.
Types of reliability: test-retest reliability
A researcher may use exactly the same measurement procedure for the same group of individuals at two different times. Or use modified versions of the measurement instrument (like a different test) to obtain two different measurements for the same group of participants.
Types of reliability: inter-rater reliability
Degree of agreement between two observers. Can be measured by computing the correlation between the scores from the two observers.
Types of reliability: split-half reliability
Obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.
Validity
The appropriateness of the measuring instrument. Does it measure what it is intended to measure?
Types of validity: face validity
“Do you feel depressed?” On a measure of depression. Superficial appearance, face value.
Types of validity: concurrent validity
Establishes consistency between two different procedures for measuring the same variable, suggesting that the two measurement procedures measure the same thing.
Types of validity: construct validity
Do the results of a test correlate with what is theoretically known about the construct being evaluated? Ex: does a test of childhood pessimism predict later depression?
Types of validity: convergent validity
Does the test agree with different types of measurement of the same construct? Ex: does new self-report measure agree with clinical interview?
Types of validity: divergent validity
Does the test distinguish between one construct and another? Ex: correctly classify depression versus another disorder or no disorder.
Scales of measurement: nominal
Represent QUALITATIVE (not quantitative) differences in the variable measured. Ex: college majors
Scales of measurement: ordinal
Categories that have different names and are organized sequentially. Series of ranks (1st, 2nd, 3rd). Occasionally identified by verbal labels (small, medium, large drink sizes). Can determine how two things are different, and the direction of difference.
Scale me of measurement: interval
Organized sequentially, and all categories are the same size. Consists of a series of equal intervals like inches on a ruler. Has zero point.
Scales of measurement: ratio
Organized sequentially l, and all categories are the same size. Scale of measurement consist of a series or equal intervals like inches on a ruler. No zero point.
Range effects
Occur when a dependent measure has an upper or lower limit
Range effects: ceiling effect
when a dependent measure has an upper limit it allows little or no possibly of increases in value. Clustering of scores at the end of a measurement scale.
Range effects: floor effect
When a dependent measure has a lower limit, allowing little or no possibility of decrease in value.
Modalities of measurement: self-report
Asks participants direct questions to study behavior. Report on their own behavior or state of mind. Validity is dubious; people lie.
Modalities of measurements: physiological
Based on manifestations of the underlying construct. Provide objective measures. Ex: galvanic skin response and MRIs
Modalities of measurement: behavioral
Based on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured. Provides researchers with a vast number of options; possible to select the behavior that seems to be best for defining and measuring the construct. Behavior may be temporary or situational.
Experimenter bias
Measurements are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations regarding the outcome of the study
Demand characteristics
Refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that suggest to the participants the purpose and hypothesis of the study, and influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.
Participant reactivity
Participants modify their natural behavior in response to knowing they are in a study.
Participant roles: good subject
Participants have identified he hypothesis Of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investigator’s hypothesis.
Participant roles: negativistic subject
Participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to the investigator’s hypothesis.
Participant roles: apprehensive subject
Participants are overly concerned that their performance in the study will be used to evaluate their abilities or personal characteristics. Respond in socially desirable fashion instead of truthfully.
Participant roles: faithful subject
Participants attempt to follow instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any suspicions that have about the purpose of the study. Two types of people; those who want to help science and knew they shouldn’t allow their suspicions to enter into their responses and hose who are apathetic and don’t give the study much thought. Want these kinds of participants.
