Chapter 1: Psychology as a Science Flashcards
E-Book - NOBA Textbook Chapter 1 Covers: "History of Psychology" "Why Science" "Thinking Like a Psychological Scientist"
The two precursors to American psychology
Philosophy & Physiology
Think The Three-P’s: P-P-P
Philosophy, Physiology, Psychology
Psychology
The scientific study of mental processes and behaviors (APA)
…how we use language, how we solve problems, how we categorize information, how we emotionally respond to something.
Two Ancient Greek philosophers who ushered the roots of psychology:
Heraclitus & Aristotle
“Day by day, what you choose, what you think, and what you do is who you become.”
“Everything flows and abides, everything gives way and nothing stays fixed.”
Heraclitus is saying that everything changes and flowing - this signifies a SHIFT IN THOUGHT over the course of time
“It is the mark of an educated man to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
Aristotle is claiming how we may not agree to something or we may find some truth in something and entertain it.
Rationalism
Rational thoughts
(OPPOSED TO EMPIRICISM, which revolves on senses and perception)
Two philosophers who promoted the idea of EMPIRICISM
John Locke & Thomas Reid
Empiricism
The idea that all knowledge comes from experience - use the eyes, ears, nose, touch…to form our opinions on what is going on
“If I see it, it must be real. If I smell it, it must be real.”
The German physiologist who measured the speed of the neural impulse + explored the physiology of hearing and vision
Hermann von Helmholtz
Neural Impulse
An electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate.
Its speed was measured by German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz.
What did the work of Hermann von Helmholtz indicate?
Indicated that our senses can deceive us (are fallible) and are not a mirror of the external world
Implied there is a psychological reality and a physical reality
The German physician and German physicist whose works contributed to the creation of psychophysics
Ernst Weber & Gustav Fechner
Psychophysics
The study of relationships between physical stimuli and the human perception of those stimuli
(Served as the basis for the new science of psychology)
What study served as the basis for the new science of psychology?
Psychophysics
German physician, physiologist, and philosopher who is credited for the formal development of modern psychology VIA the establishment of the field of experimental psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
Experimental Psychology
Using scientific laboratories and scientific methods to study the mind
What did Wilhelm Wundt do?
He combined lectures and teachings on experimental psychology with laboratory experience.
(AKA he was the FIRST to open a laboratory for experimental psychology!)
Introspection
A method of focusing on internal processes
How was introspection used by Wilhelm Wundt’s students?
Wundt’s students were trained to offer detailed self-reports of their reactions to various stimuli
Consciousness
The awareness of ourselves and our environment
What was the goal of Wundt and his students when performing introspection? (self-reports of reactions to stimuli)
To scientifically identify the elements of consciousness
What did the work of Wundt and his students demonstrate?
Demonstrated that:
1) The mind could be MEASURED
2) The nature of consciousness could be revealed through SCIENTIFIC means
A former student of Wilhelm Wundt, brought “structuralism” to the United States
Edward Bradford Titchener
Structuralism
Introduced by Edward Bradford Titchener.
A school of psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience.
Balance of SCIENCE and PRACTICE
Titchener was known to exclusively focus on the ADULT mind. So he did not study…
Children, animals, and those with mental deficiencies
American Psychological Association (APA)
An association established in 1892 that helped organize psychology in America
Margaret Floy Washburn
Edward B. Titchener’s first doctoral student. The first woman in America to earn a Ph.D. in psychology and the second female president of the APA.
Society of Experimental Psychologists
A group created by Edward B. Titchener in belief that the APA did not adequately represent the interests of experimental psychology.
True or False: The Society of Experimental Psychologists supported female members and women’s endeavors to become more involved in psychology.
False! Women researchers were not invited because of the gender barriers at the time.
American Psychological Society (known today as the Association for Psychological Science)
A group founded in 1988 with the central mission of advancing psychological science
Functionalism
The alternative to structuralism,
The school of psychology focused on the utility of consciousness.
What is the difference between STRUCTURALISM and FUNCTIONALISM?
Structuralism: Interest in the CONTENTS OF THE MIND - what the mind IS
Functionalism: Interest in the ACTIVITIES OF THE MIND - what the mind DOES
Three individuals part of the leading American psychologists that ushered functionalism
William James, G. Stanley Hall, & James McKeen Catell
William James
A functionalist psychologist, wrote the Principles of Psychology
What did the Principles of Psychology say?
James OPPOSED the ideas of Edward B. Titchener (too “reductionist”)
Proposed that consciousness is ONGOING and CONTINUOUS - it cannot be isolated or reduced to mere elements
Believed consciousness helps us adapt to our environment (e.g. making choices and being accountable for those choices)
Mary Whiton Calkins
A Harvard student of William James, became an accomplished research and the first woman elected president of the APA
G. Stanley Hall
A functionalist psychologist, who:
- Founded the first psychological laboratory in America (Johns Hopkins Uni.)
- Created the first journal of psychology in America (American Journal of Psychology)
- Mentored Francis Cecil Sumner
- Invited/Hosted Sigmund Freud during his only visit to America
Francis Cecil Sumner
“The Father of Black Psychology” - The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in America, at Clark University in 1920.
His work aided to dismantle racial practices and bias + how racism prevents development of the mind.
What did G. Stanley Hall do?
He was interested in the process of adaptation and human development, mainly those of children.
He used surveys and questionnaires to study children, helping usher research on child development and education.
James McKeen Cattell
One of Wundt’s students, a functionalist psychologist who took interest in the assessment of individual differences
Established a department of psychology at Columbia University + Published scientific journals and reference works
Individual Differences
Ways in which people differ in terms of their behavior, emotion, cognition, and development
What did James McKeen Cattell believe in?
He believed that mental abilities such as intelligence were inherited and could be measured using mental tests
In Cattell’s mind, society was better served by identifying those with superior intelligence and supported efforts to encourage them to produce
Eugenics
The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits
(an idea James McKeen Cattell believed in)
Gestalt Psychology
An attempt to study the unity of the experience - the mind processes MULTIPLE stimuli/sensation at once (versus piece by piece)
Also explored the nature of learning and thinking/perception (mostly in America) - served as the precursor for the rise of Cognitive Psychology in America
Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, & Kurt Lewin
The German psychologists who spearheaded gestalt psychology and OPPOSED the reductionist approach of Wilhelm Wundt’s laboratory psychology
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” - how does this quote relate to Gestalt Psychology?
The gestalt psychologists believed that studying the whole of any experience was RICHER than studying individual aspects of that experience
What did the gestalt psychologists say about how the mind processes information?
They argued that the mind often processes information SIMULTANEOUSLY rather than sequentially
Let’s say you’re looking at a photograph. How can you use this to relate back to Gestalt Psychology?
With a photograph, you see the whole image. You don’t see a collection of pixels of color.
Behaviorism
The study of behaviors
What did behaviorism oppose?
Behaviorism rejected any reference to the mind, viewing overt and observable behavior as the subject matter of psychology
“If you can’t see it, you can’t make sense of it”
What was hoped to come out of behaviorism?
To predict and control behavior
American psychologists who championed behaviorism
John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner
Russian physiologist who influenced early behaviorism in America
Ivan Pavlov
What did Ivan Pavlov do?
Pavlov conducted work on conditioned learning (classical conditioning)
Provided support for the notion that learning and behavior were controlled by events in the environment, able to be explained with no reference to the mind or consciousness
What happened to behaviorism in the 1960s?
Popularity for it began to slow. Psychologists realized more and more that behaviorism was incapable in explaining human behavior because of how it neglected mental processes.
Cognitive Psychology
The study of mental processes
Frederic C. Bartlett
British psychologist who explored the idea of the constructive mind, recognizing the people use their past experiences to construct frameworks to understand new experiences
3 major pioneers in American cognitive psychology during the 1950s and 1960s - their work inspired interest in cognition and neuroscience
Jerome Bruner, Roger Brown, & George Miller
Jerome Bruner
Conducted pioneering studies on the cognitive aspects of sensation and perception
Roger Brown
Conducted research on language and memory
Coined the term “flashbulb memory”
Founded how to study the “tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon”
Flashbulb Memory
A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is a sensation that the word is available
George Miller
Conducted research on working memory
Wrote “The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information”
Working Memory
A cognitive system with limited capacity that can temporarily hold information
French psychologist who developed modern intelligence tests with the goal of identifying schoolchildren in need of educational support
Alfred Binet
While Binet pushed for compulsory public education, what did his mental tests consist of?
Binet’s tests involved reasoning and problem-solving tasks
The American psychologist who introduced Binet’s tests to the United States
Henry Goddard
The American psychologist who standardized Henry Goddard’s tests at Stanford University
Lewis Terman
The Nature-Nurture Debate
A debate which raises questions about the relative contributions of heredity and environment in determining intelligence.
This is in part as to why assessment and meaning of intelligence has fueled uproar in American psychology and society
German-American psychologist from Harvard University, made contributions to areas of Industrial/Organization (I/O) Psychology (employee selection, eyewitness testimony, and psychotherapy)
Hugo Munsterberg
Employee Selection
Finding the good fit for something: How to make sure people are getting better/more efficient at their jobs + How many breaks employees should have to maintain their health but also stay engaged
American psychologists who produced original work on the psychology of advertising and marketing
Walter D. Scott & Harry Hollingworth
American psychologist who was a pioneer in Industrial Psychology and Engineering Psychology, with the help of her husband
Lilian Gilbreth
What did Lilian Gilbreth and Frank Gilbreth do?
They promoted the use of time and motion studies to improve efficiency in industry
Brought the efficiency movement to the home, designing kitchens and appliances (e.g. food-pedal trashcan, refrigerator shelving)
“The Founder of Clinical and School Psychology” - A student of Wilhelm Wundt, opened a psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania in 1896
Lightner Witmer
What did Lightner Witmer believe?
Witmer believed that, due to psychology dealing with the study of sensation of perception, it should be valued in treating children with learning and behavioral issues
“How can we improve school psychologists who observe less optimal/desired behaviors?”
What happened in 1917 that affected the profession of psychology?
Applied psychologists created standards for education, training, and licensure for becoming a psychologist.
Note that, before this had occurred, anyone could take the title of “psychologist” and use it at their own expense.
The group created after standards were set for psychological professions
American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP)
What was the difference between the American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP) and the American Psychological Association (APA)?
AAAP - Serves those in education, industry, consulting, and clinical work
APA - Represented the interests of academic psychologists
What did WWII do to the world of psychology?
WWII resulted in increased psychiatric war casualties, all while there was a shortage of mental health professionals
How did America respond to the shortage of mental health professionals during WWII?
Merged the AAAP and APA, focusing on training professional psychologists
National Mental Health Act of 1946
Funded the APA, Veterans Administration, and Public Health Service to collaborate on developing training programs
PRODUCED CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
1949 Boulder Conference
A conference held in Boulder, Colorado, on graduate education in clinical psychology.
What came out of the 1949 Boulder Conference?
The launching of doctoral training programs + in counseling and school psychology
Introduction of the Scientist-Practitioner Model
Scientist-Practitioner Model
A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research (how the mind works) and clinical skills/training (practice)
1973 Vail Conference
A conference held on professional training in psychology.
Proposed the Scholar-Practitioner Model
Scholar-Practitioner Model
A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical training (dealing with various populations/people) over research
What is the difference between the Scientist-Practitioner Model and the Scholar-Practitioner Model?
Scientist-Practitioner Model: Focused on development of research and clinical skills/training
- Earns a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy)
Scholar-Practitioner Model: Focused on clinical training practice, rather than research
- Earns a Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology)
In the realm of social issues, psychology has…
Challenged harmful assumptions, stereotypes, and stigma via the methods and tools of science in psychological research
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)
A group founded in 1936 which supported research and action on a wide range of social issues
Two pioneers in research on psychology of sex differences
Helen Thompson Woolley & Leta S. Hollingworth
Helen Thompson Woolley
Examined the assumption that women were overly emotional compared to men.
Found that emotion did not influence women’s decisions any more than it did men’s.
Leta S. Hollingworth
Discovered that menstruation did not negatively impact women’s cognitive or motor abilities
A couple, among the first generation of African American psychologists, who studied the psychology of race
Mamie Phipps Clark & Kenneth Clark
What did Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark find?
They demonstrated the ways school segregation had negatively impacted the self-esteem of African American children
How was the Clarks’ research integral in defying racial injustice during the 1950s?
Their research was influential to the 1954 Supreme Court ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, which ended school segregation.
Because self-esteem of African American children was affected, it served as a basis that their academic performance would likewise be affected.
Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi)
A group created in 1968, advancing greater advocacy for African American issues while bringing together Black psychologists
American psychologist who published “The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual” and whose research helped de-pathologize (stop medicalization of) homosexuality
Evelyn Hooker
What did Evelyn Hooker find?
From her research, she proved that there were no significant differences in psychological adjustment between homosexual and heterosexual men
Because of Hooker’s efforts aside from other protests and research, what occurred in 1973?
The APA removed homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Science
The use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge
Systematic Observation
The careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it.
Observations provide basic data that allow scientists to track, tally, or otherwise organize information about the natural world.
Kids in a science class combining vinegar and baking soda to observe the bubbly chemical reaction that happens afterwards is an example of…
Systematic Observation
Empirical Methods
Approaches to inquiry that are tired to actual measurement and observation
What are the 4 essential elements of science?
- Systematic Observation is the CORE of Science
- Observation leads to Hypotheses we can Test
- Science is Democratic
- Science is Cumulative
Explain the first essential element of science.
Scientists measure the phenomenon they are observing. They record observations so that memory biases are less likely to enter into conclusions.
Scientists observe under controlled conditions and systematically vary the conditions of their observations so that they can see variations in the phenomena. They can then understand when they occur and when they do not occur.
Explain the second essential element of science.
When developing hypotheses and theories, they are stated in a way that can be tested.
(E.g.) Claim that candles are made of paraffin wax burn more slowly than do candles of the exact same size and shape, except made from bee’s wax.
This claim can be readily tested by timing the burning speed of candles made from these materials.
Hypotheses
A logical idea that can be tested / Tentative explanations that are subject to testing
Theories
Groups of closely related phenomena or observations
