Chapter 1- Pompeii and Herculaneum Flashcards
Describe the main events of the eruption
Initial blast of ash/pumice (20km tall, falling at 15cmph) only Pompeii hit
Surge- gas/ash at 250kmph
Flow- lava at 20-50kmph, 400 degrees Celsius
6 surges/flows
Herculaneum is buried by 3rd surge/flow
Pompeii is buried by 6th surge/flow
When was the eruption?
1pm on the 24th of August, AD79 till
8:30am on the 25th August AD79
Who were the sources on the earthquake of AD62?
Strabo
Seneca
Inscriptions in the cities
Who were the sources on the eruption in AD79?
Pliny the Younger and his letters
Statius the Poet
Dio Cassius
Suetonius
Who were the Freeborn and what were their roles?
Made up of local Oscars or Roman colonists or descendants of Freedmen
Earned money through inheritance/patronage/agriculture, not direct business
Political leaders- could vote/hold office
Full legal rights
Often funded public works through patronage
Could sit in nice seats at the theatre/amphitheatre
Who were the Freedmen and what was their role?
Freed slaves- worked under master or start business
Still client to ex-master, often clients of Freeborn
Worked in business- often wealthy, but didn’t have status
Augustales
Could vote in Comitium, but not run for office
Could have freeborn children
What were the imports for Pompeii and Herculaneum?
Tableware from Northern Italy, Gaul and Cyprus
Wine from Mediterranean
Olive Oil from Libya and Spain
Garum from Spain
What were the exports out of Pompeii and Herculaneum?
Garum
Wine
Amphora
Pottery
What were the markets in Pompeii? What were the differences between them?
Marcellum- NE in forum, sold fish and veges
Forum Holitorium- NW in forum, sold dried cereals, pulses,
Mensa ponderaria
Saturday was market day
There were also temporary stalls and public toilets
What is the evidence on the occupations held in Pompeii?
Fresco of Julia Felix
The Paintings in the House of the Vetti
What were the industries in Pompeiian?
Wine/oil Market/flower garden Garum Cloth/textile Bakery Service
What did the Pompeiians do as leisure activities?
Watch Gladiatorial games/beast hunts at the Amplitheatre
Watch the theatre- Greek tragedy/comedy, pantomimes/farces/mimes
Drink and gamble- cockfighting mosaic
Describe the Gladiatorial facilities
Barracks- gladiator residence
Quadriporticus- training ground
Schola Armaturium- gladiator armoury
Palaestra- public exercise ground
What did the Pompeiians eat? What was their diet?
Varied diet, sometimes dined out at inns Dates, figs, nuts Sheep, pigs, cattle, Seafood, Garum Eggs, bread Thermopolia- fast food according to Penelope Allison
What did the Pompeiians wear?
Men- belted knee-length tunic, strips indicating class, togas are formal
Women- stola tunic, palla cloak
Workers- coarser, shorter wool tunic,
Describe the general health of the Pompeiians
Estelle Lazer's research Women were 155cm tall, men were 167cm talk Hormonal disease in women? Diseases- tuberculosis, brucellosis Dr Mums to fix injuries?
Describe the baths in Pompeii
4 baths: Stabian, Forum, Central, Sarno Exercise yard Order: changing room> cold bath> warm> sweating> cooling Charcoal burning heating system Condensation collected
Describe the water supply to Pompeii
Serinum Aqueduct> Castellum Aque> 3 main pipes>14 other tanks
For fountains, baths, latrines, houses
Fountains were public water access, cleaned streets
What was the sanitation system at Pompeii?
Public Latrines
Private Latrines
Waste carried by running water in sewerage
Waste went to cesspits underground
What types of private housing was there?
Apartments/insulae- apartments (House of the Trellis)
Shops/workshops- small/medium shop reisdencies
Domus/atrium house- average house, atrium (House of Julia Felix)
Atrium-peristyle house- large, peristyle then atrium (House of the Vetti)
What are some examples of leisure Villas and working Villas?
Leisure- Villa of the Mysteries
Working-
In clockwise order, what were the buildings surrounding the Forum?
Temple of Jupiter Marcellum Sanctuary of the City Lares Temple of Vespasian Eumachia's building The Comitium Decurions' office Duumviris' office Aediles' office Basilica Temple of Apollo Forum Holitorium
What is the difference between private and public worship in terms of Religion in Pompeii?
Private worship refers to religious practices done at home on as a part of a foreign or imperial cult.
Public worship refers to religious practices sanctioned by the government as the Roman Religion i.e. The Roman Pantheon
What are the cults/foreign religions in Pompeii?
Imperial- Genius of Augustus, linked to Lares, Augustales
Isis- 1/3 women were members, Egyptian deity worship-
Julia Felix gardens
Dionysius/Bacchus- debauchery, expansive (Livy)- Villa of the Mysteries
Judaism
Christianity
Hinduism
What was worshipped in the household? What rituals were involved?
Deities: Lares, Vesta, Genius, Penatus, Bacchus/Mercury
Lararium
Family worship, ancestral worship, rites of passage
Amulets
Which deities were a part of the state worship? What rituals were involved?
Venus Apollo Mercury Hercules Public sacrifices performed/interpreting signs
What were the temples found in Pompeii?
Jupiter Vespasian City Lares Venus Fortuna Augusta Apollo Jupiter Melichos Isis
How was Pompeii influenced but the Greeks and the Egyptians?
Pompeii was once a Greek settlement.
And when Alexander the Great begun Hellenisation process, Egyptian culture passed through Greek culture to reach Italy.
Also trade and foreign immigrants and slaves introduced new culture.
How did the Greeks influence Pompeiian art?
Statues were built imitating Greek sculpture of heroes/gods like in the Villa of Papyri
Mosaics/murals depicting Greek mythology like the ‘Alexander Mosaic’ in the House of the Faun
Frescoes also depicted Greek scenes
How did the Greeks influence Pompeiian architecture?
Theatre design Palaestra design Doric, Ionic, Corinthian columns Peristyle in the House of the Faun Colonnades
How did the Greeks influence Pompeiian Religion?
Adaptations of the Greek Pantheon
Cult worship
Hercules images in Herculaneum
How did the Egyptians influence Pompeiian Art?
Mosaics depicting Nile scenes in the House of the Faun
Wall paintings with Egyptian motifs in the Temple of Isis
How did the Egyptians influence Pompeiian architecture?
‘Asian Luxuria’ style found in Peristyle houses
Egyptian Garden Art in the House of Julia Felix
How did the Egyptians influence Pompeiian Religion?
Cult worship- Isis
Amulets of the God Bes
Egyptian Deity worship found in House of the Golden Cupids
What were the contributions of Guiseppe Fiorelli?
Entrance fee- funded site
Cleared spoil heaps- made site look better
Excavated vertically- preserved wall art
Established Archaeological school- trained pro archaeologists
Divided up town- helps locate sites/artefacts
Plaster casts- helped research/see victims/Inspired Jashemski
Published Journal- reference for future archaeologists
Made town plan/cork model- helped future studies of site
Deal with Naples- stopped some of Antiquity trade
What were the contributions of August Mau?
Developed typology for wall paintings/frescoes- provided dating method for building
Published book on wall paintings- inspired restoration/conservation
What did Fiorelli’s successors contribute?
Constructed small protective roofs- kept 600/700 wall paintings on site
Reconstructed House of the Silver/Vettii- showed daily life
Cleaned up site
What were the contributions of Vittorio Spinazzola?
Excavated the Via dell’Abondanza- uncovered 600m thoroughfare
Restoration of upper floors
Excavated horizontally- preserved upper floors of houses
Excavated some house on the Vd’A
What did Amedeo Maiuri contribute?
Fascist government funded him
Worked on Vd’A
Found House of Menander/Villa of the Mysteries
Uncovered most of what is there today
Mass restoration
Excavated beneath subsoil and the city wall/older buildings-
Pre-Roman history? Greek occupation
Large excavations- rushed? Ill documented? No preserved well
What are the recent international contributions to the site?
Restricted some areas of the site- preservation of site
Conservation is the focus
Only a few houses have been excavated
Excavation, restoration, documentation
Restricted visitors with guided tours- preserve site
What are some of the new investigations brought up by new research and technology?
Human remains- plaster casts, resin/MRI scans, 300 skeletons
Organic remains- paster casts of plants, plant/food remains
Effect of earthquake- did the city decline or rise/no change?
Interpretations of buildings- what were rooms used for?
Brothels- how prevalent was prostitution?
Pottery/trade- where was the lottery really made?
What did the investigation into human remains uncover?
Plaster casts- (1870s) Guiseppe Fiorelli
Resin casts/MRI scans- (1990s) Estelle Lazer uncovered Lady of Oplontis, determined cause of death, physicality, age, health
300 skeleton review- (1980s) Estelle Lazer established ages, genders, health, hormonal disease made women ugly
How did these new studies of human remains change interpretations?
By studying the Lady of Oplontis, archaeologists found that the main cause of death was superheating not asphyxiation.
The review of 300 skeleton established the hormonal disease among women, making them ugly unlike the way frescoes depicted them
What did the investigation into organic remains uncover?
Plants- (1970s) Wilhelmina Jashemski used the plaster casts of Fiorelli on plants, determine the species and nature of kitchen gardens. She is now growing replicas.
Plant/food remains- (2000s) Oxford Uni team building on Jashemski, investigating latrine pits and sewers for evidence of diet as well as burnt offering to Lares
What did the investigation into the AD62 earthquake uncover?
Decline: (1940s) Maiuri believed the wealthy abondoned their damaged houses, which were turned into workshops. (1992) Likewise, Penelope Allison analysed 30 houses, claiming that they’d been taken over by squatters and were dishevelled
Increase/no change: John Dobbins says there were repairs being made to city. (2003) Allison Cooley believes the buildings weren’t damaged but renovated. Wealthy may have already been moving out. But repairs may have been done before/after earthquake.
What did the investigation into the purposes of buildings uncover?
Penelope Allison tried to determine the functions of particular rooms. She found many multi-purpose rooms.
Ancient sources like ‘On Architecture’ idealise Roman house.
What did the investigation into brothels uncover?
AWH- Created criteria for brothels, believed they were segregated
Thomas McGinn- criteria no comprehensive, prostitution was common entrerpise, not segregated
What did the investigation into pottery and trade uncover?
Anglo-American Project- (1998) Jaye Pont
Examined sections of pottery under microscope
Red slip pottery
Clay originates from the Bay of Naples
They used to think it was made elsewhere by simply judging the colour, this was altered in the manufacturing process.
What are the main issues involved in conservation and reconstruction?
Natural environmental issues Poor conservation/reconstruction methods Poor site management Looting Tourism
What are some of the Italian and international contributions concerning conservation and reconstruction?
1980 earthquake caused concern- made world heritage site in 1998
Italians accepted financial aid
Italian specialists and foreign uni teams work on site
What is the history of studying and displaying human remains at Pompeii?
People used to set up scenes with skeletons.
Fiorelli really introduced plaster casts- brought humanity back to site
Estelle Kazer studied 300 skeletons
Indigenous and religious communities began to question this research
Greater awareness
What are the ethical issues involved in the study and display of human remains?
Immoral vs Good research
Older remains have less concern
Descendants deserve rights, body is respected
Bone storage units often sub-standard
Code of ethics for display, exhibits have been closed, remains returned
Sometimes use replicas? Trying to find sensitive methods
What are distinctive aspects of the economy at Herculaneum?
Commerce- Shops, Thermopolia opposite Palaestra, Hotels
Industries- Garum, Bread, Service (no evidence)
Occupations- Bakers, carpenters, craftsmen
What are some examples of private buildings in Herculaneum?
Peristyle House- House of the Mosaic Atrium
Atrium House- House of the Cervi
Jerry-built House- House of the Trelles
Leisure Villa- Villa of Papyri
Bad Lighting- House of the Wooden Partition
Multiple Dining rooms- House of the Mosaic of Neptune
Exterior/Main gate- House of the Great Portal
What leisure activities were available at Herculaneum?
Same as Pompeii
Baths- Central and Suburban (nice architecture, prostitution?)
Theatre- seated 2500, decorated
Palaestra- exercise ground, near amphitheatre
What religious worship was practiced in Herculaneum?
No evidence of Temples?
Hercules was the city’s patron deity
Collegium Augustallum- HQ of cult priests
Dionysius/Bacchus cult
What were some of the Greek and Hellenistic influences found in Herculaneum?
Town name: like Hercules/Herakles
Adapted pantheon from Greece
What were some of the contributions of past archaeologists to Herculaneum?
Guiseppe Fiorelli- same
Amedeo Maiuri- experimented with excavation, restoration, presentation, made a ‘living museum’
Philodendron Project- multi-spectral imaging used to analyse scrolls at the Villa of Papyri, Uni of California are translating them
What are some of the ethical issues involved at Herculaneum?
Same as Pompeii
Maiuri once set up skeletons for tourist attraction at the House of the Relief of Telephus
Who is the main contributed to the conservation and restoration of Herculaneum and what have they done?
The Herculaneum Conservation Project
Packard Humanities Institute funds them
Made up of British School of Rome and local Heritage Authority
Faced groundwater issue, decaying paint, treatment of mosaic floors, excavation issues
Built weather station in the House of the Bicentenary
What has the Herculaneum Conservation Project discovered?
Pre-Roman mining, evidence of bradyseism, erosion of the Suburban baths, anomalies in the House of the Relief of Telephus, investigated sewers/drainage
What other issues are faced in Herculaneum?
Groundwater/rain
Bombing of 1943, earthquake of 1980
Pigeon nest- used Falcons
Bad restoration- House of the Mosaic Atrium
