Chapter 1: Nervous systems and anatomy

Question 1

What is the nervous system made out of?

Answer 1

1) Neurons
2) Glia

Question 2

What does the nervous system consist of?

Answer 2

1) Central Nervous System (CNS)
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Question 3

What is the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Answer 3

brain and spinal cord

Question 4

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Answer 4

network of nerves that communicate between the CNS and the rest of the body

Question 5

What brain areas are involved in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Answer 5

1) The cerebrum: the largest part of the brain and is split into two hemispheres

2) The cerebellum: involved in controlling movement

3) Brainstem: regulates vital functions such as consciousness, breathing, and temperature control

Question 6

What role does the spinal cord play in the CNS?

Answer 6

The spinal cord is the major conduit of info between the body and the brain

Question 7

What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?

Answer 7

1) Somatic: spinal nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles under voluntary control

2) Autonomic: communicates between brain and organs (involuntary) like breathing
(unconscious control of the organ systems)

• The PNS also contains of afferent and efferent neurons that carry info to/from the CNS

Question 8

What are afferent neurons?

Answer 8

Afferent = carries info into the CNS

Question 9

What are efferent neurons?

Answer 9

Efferent = carries info away from the CNS

E for exiting the brain

Question 10

What are spinal nerves?

Answer 10

Spinal nerves form the peripheral nervous system

• carries somatosensory info and motor instructions out of the spinal cord
• they come in 31 pairs

Question 11

What are the parts of the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 11

Sympathetic: arouses, fight or flight

Parasympathetic: calms the body down

Question 12

What are cranial nerves?

Answer 12

• part of the peripheral nervous system
• communicates with body parts and the brain but bypasses the spinal cord

Question 13

What is the spinal cord?

Answer 13

an information highway to and from the brain

protected by bony vertebrae

surrounded by 3 layers of protective tissue called meninges

Question 14

How does the spinal cord send info to the brain?

Answer 14

The spinal cord sends tactile info from the skin up to the brain (afferent) and sends signals down from the brain to control body movements (efferent)

Question 15

What does the central part of the spinal cord contain?

Answer 15

contains gray matter shaped like a butterfly.

contains the cell bodies of neurons whose axons can cause muscles to contract

Question 16

What is the brainstem?

Answer 16

-consists of four major structures: the medulla, pons, cerebellum, and midbrain

• vital for life (e.g breathing)
• processes and directs attention to auditory and visual information

Question 17

What is the cerebellum?

Answer 17

“little brain”

-motor control, motor learning, predicts sensory and motor events

Question 18

What is the thalamus?

Answer 18

The thalamus is the gateway or relay station for sensory information arriving into the brain before going to the cortex

Question 19

What is the hypothalamus?

Answer 19

involved in hormones, motivation, homeostasis, etc

Question 20

What is the basal ganglia?

Answer 20

involved in decision-making, initiating voluntary movements, among other functions

Question 21

What is the amygdala?

Answer 21

fear response, emotion

Question 22

What is the hippocampus?

Answer 22

episodic memory, navigation

Question 23

What is the Cerebral Cortex (neocortex)?

Answer 23

The neocortex is the outer layer of the cerebral cortex. It is involved in a variety of higher cognitive functions, including perception, attention, consciousness, thought, and language.

Question 24

What are the four lobes of the neocortex?

Answer 24

Frontal lobe: located at the front of the brain and is involved in a variety of higher cognitive functions, including executive functions, decision-making, planning, and movement. It also contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of the body.

Parietal lobe: located at the top and back of the brain and is involved in processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, and pain. It also contains the primary somatosensory cortex, which is responsible for processing information about touch and other bodily sensations.

Temporal lobe: located on the sides of the brain, near the ears, and is involved in processing auditory information and in memory formation and retrieval. It also contains the primary auditory cortex, which is responsible for processing sound.

Occipital lobe: located at the back of the brain and is involved in processing visual information. It contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for processing visual information from the eyes.

Question 25

What is the difference between gray matter and white matter?

Answer 25

Gray matter: cell bodies

White matter: myelinated axons

Question 26

What are ventricles?

Answer 26

ventricles are a series of interconnected, fluid-filled cavities (CSF) within the brain. Fluid-filled cavities are spaces within the body that contain fluid

they are a part of the central nervous system and are responsible for producing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear liquid that serves as a cushion for the brain and spinal cord.

It helps nourish the brain by delivering nutrients and removing waste products.

Question 27

What are the directions of orientation?

Answer 27

1) Dorsal (or superior): refers to structures located towards the top or back of the head, or towards the back of the body in the case of the spinal cord.

2) Ventral (or inferior): refers to structures located towards the bottom or front of the head, or towards the front of the body in the case of the spinal cord.

3) Medial: refers to structures located towards the middle of the brain or spinal cord.

4) Lateral: refers to structures located towards the sides of the brain or spinal cord.

5) Anterior (or rostral): refers to structures located towards the front of the brain.

6) Posterior (or caudal): refers to structures located towards the back of the brain.

Question 28

What are glial cells?

Answer 28

supports, maintains, repairs, and insulates neurons,
and regulates neural activity

Question 29

What are astrocytes?

Answer 29

provides nutrients to neurons

maintains the chemical environment of the brain

provides structural support to neurons

helps regulate blood flow to the brain.

Question 30

What are Oligodendroglia & Schwann cells

Answer 30

Both wrap axons in myelin

Oligodendrocytes are in the brain &
spinal cord.

Schwann cells are in the peripheral
nerves

Question 31

What are Microglia & Ependymal cells?

Answer 31

• Microglia: Responds to damage, cleans up dead cells, trigger inflammation
• Ependymal cells: line the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain
• Help create cerebra-spinal fluid and
  keep it moving with cilia

Question 32

What consists of a neuron?

Answer 32

1) Dendrites: These are the branched structures that extend from the neuron’s cell body (soma). Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons and transmit them towards the soma.

2) Spines: These are small, protruding structures that are found on some dendrites. Spines are thought to play a role in regulating the strength of connections between neurons.

3) Soma: This is the main body of the neuron, which contains the nucleus and other organelles. The soma is responsible for synthesizing proteins and other molecules needed for the neuron’s function.

4) Axon hillock: This is the region of the neuron where action potentials (or “spikes”) are generated. It is located at the base of the axon, near the soma.

5) Axon: This is a long, slender projection that extends from the neuron’s soma. Axons transmit signals away from the neuron and towards other neurons or target cells.

6) Axon terminal: This is the end of the axon, where it forms a synapse (or connection) with another neuron or target cell. At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, allowing the signal to be transmitted to the next neuron or target cell.

Question 33

What are raphe nuclei?

Answer 33

a group of nuclei located in the midline of the brainstem, primarily in the medulla oblongata and pons.

major source of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep, among other functions.

involved in the regulation of various physiological processes, including the control of pain, respiration, and cardiovascular function.

Question 34

What is the substantia nigra?

Answer 34

a group of nuclei located in the midbrain that are involved in the regulation of movement.

produces dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is involved in the control of movement and reward processing.

damage to the substantia nigra is associated with Parkinson’s disease, a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms such as tremors and rigidity.

Question 35

What is the ventral tegmental area (VTA)?

Answer 35

a group of nuclei located in the midbrain that is involved in the regulation of reward, motivation, and addiction.

produces dopamine, which is released in response to rewarding stimuli such as food, sex, and drugs of abuse.

The VTA is also involved in the regulation of mood and stress responses.

Question 36

What is the locus coeruleus?

Answer 36

a small nucleus located in the pons that is involved in the regulation of arousal, attention, and stress responses.

produces norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that is involved in the modulation of attention, arousal, and stress responses.

Dysfunction of the locus coeruleus has been implicated in a range of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).