Chapter 1: Key Terms

Question 1

abducens (VI)

Answer 1

The sixth pair of cranial nerves, which innervate the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeballs.

Question 2

absolute threshold

Answer 2

The minimum amount of stimulation necessary for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Question 3

Artificial neural networks

Answer 3

referred to as connectionist models, are computational methods that consist of networks of nodes with weighted connections between them. Connection weights increase and decrease following experience in ways that resemble organized biological networks.

Question 4

Bayesian models

Answer 4

Theoretical and/or computational models that employ Bayesian statistical methods to generate an internal model of the source of sensory inputs based upon prior experience.

Question 5

blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal

Answer 5

the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin that permits the localization of brain neuron’s that are most involved in a task.

Question 6

computational models

Answer 6

the use of mathematical language and equations to describe steps in psychological and/or neural processes (often implemented by a computer).

Question 7

cranial nerves

Answer 7

twelve pairs of nerves (one for each side of the body) that originate in the brain stem and reach sense organs and muscles through openings in the skull.

Question 8

criterion

Answer 8

In reference to signal detection theory, an internal threshold that is set by the observer.

If the internal response is above criterion, the observer gives one response (“yes I hear that”).

Below criterion, the observer gives another response (“No, I hear nothing”).

Question 9

cross-modality matching

Answer 9

The ability to match the intensities of sensations that come from different sensory modalities. This ability allows insight to sensory differences.

For example, a listener might adjust brightness of a light until it matches the loudness of a tone.

Question 10

deep nueral networks (DNN)

Answer 10

A type of machine learning in artificial intelligence in which a computer is programmed to learn something (here object recognition).

These are artificial neural networks that have a large number of layers of nodes with millions of connections. First the network is “trained” using input for which the answer is known (“that is a cow”). Subsequently, the network can provide answers from input it has never seen before.

Question 11

doctrine of specific nerve energies

Answer 11

A doctrine formulated by Johannes Muller, stating that the nature of sensation depends on which sensory fibres are stimulated, rather than how they are stimulated.

Question 12

dualism

Answer 12

The idea that the mind has an existence separate from the material world of the body.

Question 13

Efficient coding models

Answer 13

Theoretical and/or computational models that explain neural processing by assuming that the sensory systems become tied to predictability in natural environments in ways that economically encode predictable sensory inputs while highlighting inputs that are less predictable.

Question 14

electroencephalography (EEG)

Answer 14

A technique that, using electrodes on the scalp, measures electrical activity from populations of many nuerons in the brain.

Question 15

event-related potential (ERP)

Answer 15

A measure of electrical activity from a subpopulation of nuerons in response to particular stimuli that requires averaging many EEG recordings.

Question 16

Fechner’s law

Answer 16

A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.

Question 17

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Answer 17

A variant of magnetic resonance imaging that makes it possible to measure localized patterns of activity in the brain.

Activated nuerons provoke increased blood flow, which can be quantified by measuring changes in the response of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to strong magnetic fields.

Question 18

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Answer 18

an imaging technology that uses the response of atoms to strong magnetic fields to form images of structures like the brain. The method can be adapted to measure activity in the brain, as well.

Question 18

just noticeable difference

Answer 18

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, or the minimum change in stimulus that enables it to be correctly judged as different from the reference stimulus.

Question 19

magnitude estimation

Answer 19

A psychophysical method in which the participant assigns values according to the perceived magnitude of stimulus.

Question 20

materialism

Answer 20

the idea that the only thing that exists is matter, and all things, including the mind and consciousness, are the results of interaction between bits of matter.

Question 21

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Answer 21

A technique, similair to an EEG, that measures changes in magnetic activity across populations of many neurones in the brain.

Question 22

mathematical model

Answer 22

The use of mathematical language and equations to describe psychological and/or neural processes.

Question 23

method of adjustment

Answer 23

A method of limits in which the participant controls the change in the stimulus.

Question 24

method of limits

Answer 24

A psychophysical method in which the particular dimension of a stimulus, or the difference between two stimuli, is varied incrementally until the participant responds differently.

Question 25

method of constant stimuli

Answer 25

A psychophysical method in which many stimuli, ranging from rarely to almost always perceivable (or rarely to almost always perceivably different from a reference stimulus), are presented one at a time. Participants respond to each presentation: “yes/no”, “same/different,” and so on.

Question 26

neuroimaging

Answer 26

A set of methods that generate images of the structure and/or function of the brain.

In many cases, these methods allow us to examine the brain in living, behaving humans.

Question 27

neurotransmitters

Answer 27

A chemical substance used in neuronal communication at synapses.

Question 28

oculomotor (III) nerves

Answer 28

The third pair of cranial nerves, which innervate all the extrinsic muscles of the eye except the lateral rectus and the superior oblique muscles, and which which innervate the elevator muscle of the upper eyelid, the ciliary muscle, and the sphincter muscle of the pupil.

Question 29

Olfactory (I) nerves

Answer 29

the first pair of cranial nerves.

The axons of the olfactory sensory neurone bundle together after passing through the cribriform plate to form the olfactory nerve, which conducts impulses from the olfactory epithelia in the nose to the olfactory bulb.

Question 30

optic (II) nerves

Answer 30

The second pair of cranial nerves, which arise from the retina and carry visual information to the thalamus and other parts of the brain.

Question 31

panpsychism

Answer 31

The idea that the mind exists as a property of all matter-that is, that all matter has a consciousness.

Question 32

Perception

Answer 32

the act of giving meaning to a detected sensation.

Question 33

polysensory

Answer 33

Referring to blending multiple sensory systems.

Question 34

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Answer 34

An imaging technology that enables us to define locations in the brain where nuerons are especially active by measuring the metabolism of brain cells using safe radioactive isotopes.

Question 35

predicitve coding

Answer 35

The use of Bayesian models that predict future inputs. If predictions do not math inputs (prediction error), the model is adjusted to improve future predictions.

Question 36

qualia

Answer 36

In reference to philosophy, private conscious experiences of sensation or perception.

Question 37

psychophysics

Answer 37

the science of defining quantitative relationships between physical an psychological (subjective, perceptual) events.

Question 38

receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve

Answer 38

In reference to studies of signal detection, the graphical plot of the hit rate as a function of the false alarm rate.

If these are the same, points fall on the diagonal, indicating that the observer cannot tell the difference between the presence and absence of the signal. As the observer’s sensitivity increases, the curve bows upward toward the upper left corner. The point represents a perfect ability to distinguish signal from noise (100% hits, 0% false alarms).

Question 39

sensation

Answer 39

The ability to detect a stimulus and, perhaps, to turn that detection into a private experience.

Question 40

sensitivity (4 def.)

Answer 40

1. The ability to perceive via the sense organs.
2. Extreme responsiveness to radiation, especially the light of a specific wavelength.
3. The ability to respond to transmitted signals.
4. In reference to signal detection theory, a measure that defines the ease with which an observer can tell the difference between the presence and absence of a stimulus or the difference between Stimulus 1 and Stimulus 2.

Question 41

sensory integration

Answer 41

The process of combining different sensory signals.

The senses typically work together to learn about the world and to guide behaviour. Typically, combining several signals yields more accurate and/or more precise information than can be obtained from individual sensory signals. This is different from mathematical process learned in calculus.

Question 42

signal detection theory

Answer 42

A psychophysical theory that quantifies the response of an observer to the presentation of a signal in the presence of noise.

Measure obtained from a series of presentations are sensitivity (d) and criterion of the observer.

Question 43

Steven’s power law

Answer 43

A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent.

Question 44

synapse

Answer 44

The junction between neurone that permit information transfer.

Question 45

trochlear (IV) nerves

Answer 45

The fourth pair of cranial nerves, which innervate the superior oblique muscles of the eyeballs.

Question 46

two-point touch threshold

Answer 46

The minimum distance at which two stimuli (two simultaneous touches) are just perceptible as seperate.

Question 47

vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves

Answer 47

The eight pair of cranial nerves.

Connect the inner ear with the brain, transmitting impulses concerned with hearing and spatial orientation. The vdestibolocchlear nerve is composed of the cochlear nerve branch and the vestibular nerve branch.

Question 48

Weber fractions

Answer 48

The constant proportion in Weber’s law.

Question 49

Weber’s law

Answer 49

The principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus.