Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Body Flashcards
1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body 1.3 Functions of Human Life 1.4 Requirements for Human Life 1.5 Homeostasis 1.6 Anatomical Terminology 1.7 Medical Imaging
The structural organization of the human body is _, _, _, _, _, and _.
Organismal, organ system, organ, tissue, cellular, chemical
The integumentary system encloses _ _ _ and site of many _ _.
Internal body structures, sensory receptors
The integumentary system includes _, _, and _.
Hair, skin, nails
The skeletal system _ the body and _ _ (with muscular system).
Supports, enables movement
The skeletal system includes _, _, and _.
Cartilage, bones, joints
The muscular system _ _ (with skeletal system) and helps maintain _ _.
Enables movement, body temperature
The muscular system includes _ and _.
Skeletal muscles, tendons
The nervous system detects and processes _ _ and activates _ _.
Sensory information, bodily responses
The nervous system includes _, _, and _.
Brain, spinal chord, peripheral nerves
The endocrine system secretes _ and regulates _ _.
Hormones, bodily processes
The endocrine system includes _, _, _, _, and _.
Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes/ovaries
The cardiovascular system delivers _ and _ to _ and equalizes _ in the body.
Oxygen, nutrients, tissues, temperature
The cardiovascular system includes _ and _.
Heart, blood vessels
The lymphatic system returns fluid to _ and defends against _.
Blood, pathogens
The lymphatic system includes _, _, _, and _.
Thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels
The respiratory system removes _ _ from the body and delivers _ to the blood.
Carbon dioxide, oxygen
The respiratory system includes _, _, and _.
Nasal passage, trachea, and lungs
The digestive system processes _ for use by the body and _ _ from undigested food.
Food, removes wastes
The digestive system includes _, _, _, _, and _.
Stomach, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, and small intestine
The urinary system controls _ balance in the body and removes _ from _ excretes them.
Water, wastes, blood
The urinary system includes _ and _.
Kidneys and urinary bladder
The male reproductive system produces _ _ and _ and delivers gametes to _.
Sex hormones, gametes, female
The female reproductive system produces _ _ and _, supports _ until birth, and produces _ for infant.
Sex hormones, gametes, embryo/fetus, milk
The male reproductive system includes _ and _.
Epididymis and testes
The female reproductive system includes _ , _, and _.
Mammary glands, ovaries, and uterus
The maintenance of essential body boundaries is _.
Organization
Energy transfer via anabolic and catabolic reactions is _.
Metabolism
The functional characteristics of human life are _, _, _, _, and _.
Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, development
Organization keep _ _ separated from _ _ threats and keep the cells _ and _.
Body cells, external environmental, moist, nourished
Organization also separates _ _ _ from the countless microorganisms that grow on body surfaces, including the lining of certain tracts, or passageways.
Internal body fluids
Although the body can respond to high temperatures by _ and to low temperatures by _ and _ _ _, long-term exposure to extreme heat and cold is not compatible with survival.
Sweating, shivering, increased fuel consumption
The body requires a precise _ _ to maintain its gases in _ and to facilitate _—the intake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide.
Atmospheric pressure, solution, respiration
Humans also require _ _ high enough to ensure that blood _ all body tissues but low enough to avoid damage to _ _.
Blood pressure, reaches, blood vessels
The four requirements for human survival are _, _, _ _ _ _, and _ _ _ _ _.
Oxygen, nutrients, narrow range of temperature, and narrow range of atmospheric pressure
Oxygen is a key component of the _ _ that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce _.
Chemical reactions, ATP
The three basic classes of nutrients are _, the -yielding and body- nutrients, and the _ (vitamins and minerals).
Water, energy, building, micronutrients
The body’s functional chemicals are dissolved and transported in _, and the chemical reactions of life take place in _.
Water, water
The breakdown products of carbohydrates and lipids can then be used in the _ processes that convert them to ATP.
Metabolic
Micronutrients participate in many essential chemical reactions and processes, such _ _, and some, such as _, also contribute to the body’s structure.
Nerve impulses, calcium
Pressure keeps gases within your body, such as the gaseous nitrogen in body fluids, _.
Dissolved
Our ability to breathe—that is, to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide—also depends upon a precise _ _.
Atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis is the activity of _ throughout the body to maintain the _ state within a narrow range that is compatible with life.
Cells, physiological
Homeostasis is regulated by _ _ loops and, much less frequently, by _ _ loops. Both have the same components of a _, _, _ _, and _.
Negative feedback, positive feedback, stimulus, sensor, control center, effector
Negative feedback loops work to prevent an _ _ to the stimulus, whereas positive feedback loops _ the response until an end point is reached.
Excessive response, intensify
A positive feedback loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather than a return to _.
Homeostasis
A standard reference position for mapping the body’s structures is the normal _ _.
Anatomical position
_ terms such as anterior and posterior are essential for accurately describing the relative locations of body structures.
Directional
Images of the body’s interior commonly align along one of three planes: the _, _, or _.
Sagittal, frontal, transverse
The body’s organs are organized in one of two main cavities— _ (also referred to posterior) and _ (also referred to anterior)—which are further sub-divided according to the structures present in each area.
Dorsal, ventral
The serous membranes have two layers—_ and _—surrounding a fluid filled space.
Parietal, visceral
Serous membranes cover the _ (pleural serosa), _ (pericardial serosa), and some _ organs (peritoneal serosa).
Lungs, heart, abdominopelvic
The serous fluid produced by the serous membranes reduces _ between the walls of the cavities and the internal organs when they move, such as when the lungs inflate or the heart beats.
Friction
Computed tomography (CT) is a noninvasive imaging technique that uses computers to analyze several _ _ in order to reveal minute details about structures in the body.
Cross-sectional X-rays
CT is especially useful for _ _ scanning, such as of the brain and the thoracic and abdominal viscera. Its level of detail is so precise that it can allow physicians to measure the size of a mass down to a millimeter.
Soft tissue
The main disadvantage of CT scanning is that it exposes patients to a dose of _ many times higher than that of X-rays.
Radiation
Matter is exposed to _ _ and _ _ was found to emit radio signals. Magnetic Resonance Imaging has the major advantage of not exposing patients to _. It is especially used to identify _.
Magnetic fields, radio waves, radiation, tumors
Drawbacks of MRI scans include their much _ _, and patient _ with the procedure. Patients with _-containing metallic _ (internal sutures, some prosthetic devices, and so on) cannot undergo MRI scanning because it can _ these implants.
Higher cost, discomfort, iron, implants, dislodge
Functional MRIs (fMRIs), which detect the concentration of _ _ in certain parts of the body, are increasingly being used to study the activity in parts of the _ during various body activities.
Blood flow, brain
Positron emission tomography is a technique involving the use of so-called _, substances that emit radiation that is short-lived and therefore relatively safe to administer to the body.
Radiopharmaceuticals
The main advantage is that PET can illustrate _ _—including nutrient metabolism and blood flow—of the organ or organs being targeted, whereas CT and MRI scans can only show _ images.
Physiologic activity, static
Ultrasonography is a technique that uses the transmission of _ _ _ into the body to generate an _ signal that is converted by a computer into a _ image of anatomy and physiology.
High-frequency sound waves, echo, real-time
Ultrasonography is the least _ of all imaging techniques. The main disadvantages of ultrasonography are that the image quality is heavily _ and that it is unable to penetrate _ and _.
Invasive, operator-dependent, bone, gas
The X-ray is a form of _ _ _ _ with a _ wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases.
High energy electromagnetic radiation, short
As they are used in medicine, X-rays are emitted from an X-ray machine and directed toward a specially treated _ _ placed behind the patient’s body.
Metallic plate
Like many forms of high energy radiation, however, X-rays are capable of _ _ and initiating changes that can lead to _.
Damaging cells, cancer
division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera
abdominopelvic cavity
assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules
anabolism
standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body
anatomical position
science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures
anatomy
larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane- lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as ventral cavity
anterior cavity
describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral
anterior
breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules
catabolism
describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as inferior
caudal
smallest independently functioning unit of all organisms; in animals, a cell contains cytoplasm, composed of fluid and organelles
cell
medical imaging technique in which a computer-enhanced cross-sectional X-ray image is obtained
computed tomography (CT)
compares values to their normal range; deviations cause the activation of an effector
control center
division of the posterior (dorsal) cavity that houses the brain
cranial cavity
describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as superior
cranial
describes a position farther from the surface of the body
deep
changes an organism goes through during its life
development
process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function
differentiation
describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
distal
posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to the posterior body cavity
dorsal cavity
describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as posterior
dorsal
organ that can cause a change in a value
effector
two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions
frontal plane
study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye; also referred to macroscopic anatomy
gross anatomy
process of increasing in size
growth
steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain
homeostasis
describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as caudal
inferior
describes the side or direction toward the side of the body
lateral
medical imaging technique in which a device generates a magnetic field to
obtain detailed sectional images of the internal structures of the body
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body
medial
sum of all of the body’s chemical reactions
metabolism
study of very small structures of the body using magnification
microscopic anatomy
homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilize an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus, typically as the stimulus is removed
negative feedback
range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center
normal range
chemical obtained from foods and beverages that is critical to human survival
nutrient
group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function
organ system
living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life
organism
functionally distinct structure composed of two or more types of tissues
organ
sac that encloses the heart
pericardium
serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs found there
peritoneum
science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions
physiology
imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body
plane
serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity and covers the lungs
pleura
mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus
positive feedback
medical imaging technique in which radiopharmaceuticals are traced to reveal metabolic and physiological functions in tissues
positron emission tomography (PET)
posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to as dorsal cavity
posterior cavity
describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as dorsal
posterior
force exerted by a substance in contact with another substance
pressure
face down
prone
describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
proximal
study of the structures that contribute to specific body regions
regional anatomy
process by which worn-out cells are replaced
renewal
process by which new organisms are generated
reproduction
ability of an organisms or a system to adjust to changes in conditions
responsiveness
two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides
sagittal plane
in anatomy, a single flat surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut through
section
(also, receptor) reports a monitored physiological value to the control center
sensor
membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serous membrane
serosa
membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serosa
serous membrane
ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis
set point
division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity
spinal cavity
describes a position nearer to the surface of the body
superficial
describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as cranial
superior
face up
supine
study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems
systemic anatomy
division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus, and trachea
thoracic cavity
group of similar or closely related cells that act together to perform a specific function
tissue
two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions
transverse plane
application of ultrasonic waves to visualize subcutaneous body structures such as tendons and organs
ultrasonography
larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane- lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as anterior body cavity
ventral cavity
describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as anterior
ventral
form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing
gases; used in medicine as a diagnostic aid to visualize body structures such as bones
X-ray
What kind of catabolism occurs in the heart?
animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ metabolic)
Fatty acid catabolism
Which organ has primary control over the amount of water in the body?
video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/H2Ocon)
The kidneys
What type of radiation does a CT scanner use?
video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/CATscan)
X-rays
What is the function of magnets in an MRI?
video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/MRI)
The magnets induce tissue to emit radio signals that can show differences between different types of tissue.
How is PET used in chemotherapy?
video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/PET)
PET scans can indicate how patients are responding to chemotherapy.
Which of the following specialties might focus on studying all of the structures of the ankle and foot ?
a. microscopic anatomy
b. muscle anatomy
c. regional anatomy
d. systemic anatomy
C
A scientist wants to study how the body uses food and fluids during a marathon run. This scientist is most likely a(n) ____.
a. exercise physiologist
b. microscopic anatomist
c. regional physiologist
d. systemic anatomist
A
The smallest independently functioning unit of an organism is a(n) ____.
a. cell
b. molecule
c. organ
d. tissue
A
A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is an ___.
a. organ
b. organelle
c. organism
d. organ system
A
The body system responsible for structural support and movement is the ___.
a. cardiovascular system
b. endocrine system
c. muscular system
d. skeletal system
D
Metabolism can be defined as ___.
a. adjustment by an organism to external or internal changes
b. process whereby all unspecialized cells become specialized to perform distinct functions
c. process whereby new cells are formed to replace worn-out cells
d. sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
D
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is an important molecule because it ___.
a. is the result of catabolism
b. release energy in uncontrolled bursts
c. stores energy for use by body cells
d. all of the above
C
Cancer cells can be characterized as “generic” cells that perform no specialized body function. Thus cancer cells lack ___.
a. differentiation
b. reproduction
c. responsiveness
d. both reproduction and responsiveness
A
Humans have the most urgent need for a continuous
supply of ________.
a. food
b. nitrogen
c. oxygen
d. water
C
Which of the following statements about nutrients is
true?
a. All classes of nutrients are essential to human
survival.
b. Because the body cannot store any micronutrients,
they need to be consumed nearly every day.
c. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are
micronutrients.
d. Macronutrients are vitamins and minerals.
A
C.J. is stuck in her car during a bitterly cold blizzard.
Her body responds to the cold by ________.
a. increasing the blood to her hands and feet
b. becoming lethargic to conserve heat
c. breaking down stored energy
d. significantly increasing blood oxygen levels
C
After you eat lunch, nerve cells in your stomach respond
to the distension (the stimulus) resulting from the food. They
relay this information to ________.
a. a control center
b. a set point
c. effectors
d. sensors
A
Stimulation of the heat-loss center causes ________.
a. blood vessels in the skin to constrict
b. breathing to become slow and shallow
c. sweat glands to increase their output
d. All of the above
C
Which of the following is an example of a normal
physiologic process that uses a positive feedback loop?
a. blood pressure regulation
b. childbirth
c. regulation of fluid balance
d. temperature regulation
B
What is the position of the body when it is in the “normal
anatomical position?”
a. The person is prone with upper limbs, including
palms, touching sides and lower limbs touching at
sides.
b. The person is standing facing the observer, with
upper limbs extended out at a ninety-degree angle
from the torso and lower limbs in a wide stance
with feet pointing laterally
c. The person is supine with upper limbs, including
palms, touching sides and lower limbs touching at
sides.
d. None of the above
D
To make a banana split, you halve a banana into two
long, thin, right and left sides along the ________.
a. coronal plane
b. longitudinal plane
c. midsagittal plane
d. transverse plane
C
The lumbar region is ________.
a. inferior to the gluteal region
b. inferior to the umbilical region
c. superior to the cervical region
d. superior to the popliteal region
D
The heart is within the ________.
a. cranial cavity
b. mediastinum
c. posterior (dorsal) cavity
d. All of the above
B
In 1901, Wilhelm Röntgen was the first person to win
the Nobel Prize for physics. For what discovery did he win?
a. nuclear physics
b. radiopharmaceuticals
c. the link between radiation and cancer
d. X-rays
D
Which of the following imaging techniques would be
best to use to study the uptake of nutrients by rapidly
multiplying cancer cells?
a. CT
b. MRI
c. PET
d. ultrasonography
C
Which of the following imaging studies can be used
most safely during pregnancy?
a. CT scans
b. PET scans
c. ultrasounds
d. X-rays
C
What are two major disadvantages of MRI scans?
a. release of radiation and poor quality images
b. high cost and the need for shielding from the
magnetic signals
c. can only view metabolically active tissues and
inadequate availability of equipment
d. release of radiation and the need for a patient to be
confined to metal tube for up to 30 minutes
B
Name at least three reasons to study anatomy and
physiology.
An understanding of anatomy and physiology is essential for _ _ in the health professions. It can also help you make choices that promote your _, respond appropriately to signs of _, make sense of health-related _, and help you in your roles as a parent, spouse, partner, friend, colleague, and caregiver.
Any career, health, illness, news
For whom would an appreciation of the structural
characteristics of the human heart come more easily: an alien who lands on Earth, abducts a human, and dissects his heart, or an anatomy and physiology student performing a dissection of the heart on her very first day of class? Why?
A student would more readily appreciate the structures revealed in the . Even though the student has not yet studied the workings of the heart and blood vessels in her class, she has experienced her heart beating every moment of her life, has probably felt her pulse, and likely has at least a basic understanding of the role of the heart in pumping blood throughout her body. This understanding of the heart’s function () would support her study of the heart’s form (_).
Dissection, physiology, anatomy
Name the six levels of organization of the human body.
- Chemical
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
- Organism
The female ovaries and the male testes are a part of
which body system? Can these organs be members of more than one organ system? Why or why not?
The female ovaries and the male testes are parts of the _ system. But they also _ _, as does the _ system, therefore ovaries and testes function within both the _ and _ systems
Reproductive, secrete hormones, endocrine, endocrine, reproductive
Explain why the smell of smoke when you are sitting
at a campfire does not trigger alarm, but the smell of smoke in your residence hall does.
When you are sitting at a campfire, your sense of smell _ to the smell of smoke. Only if that smell were to suddenly and dramatically _ would you be likely to notice and respond. In contrast, the smell of even a trace of smoke would be new and highly unusual in your residence hall, and would be perceived as _.
Adapts, intensify, danger
Identify three different ways that growth can occur in the human body.
Growth can occur by increasing the _ of existing cells, increasing the _ of existing cells, or increasing the amount of _ _ around cells.
Number, size, non-cellular material
When you open a bottle of sparkling water, the carbon dioxide gas in the bottle form bubbles. If the bottle is left open, the water will eventually “go flat.” Explain these phenomena in terms of atmospheric pressure.
In a sealed bottle of sparkling water, carbon dioxide gas is kept _ in the water under a very _ pressure. When you open the bottle, the pressure of the gas above the liquid changes from artificially _ to _ atmospheric pressure. The dissolved carbon dioxide gas _, and rises in bubbles to the surface. When a bottle of sparkling water is left open, it eventually goes flat because its gases continue to move _ of solution until the pressure in the water is approximately _ to atmospheric pressure.
Dissolved, high, high, normal, expands, out, equal
On his midsummer trek through the desert, Josh ran out of water. Why is this particularly dangerous?
The primary way that the body responds to high environmental heat is by _; however, it requires _, which comes from body fluids, including blood plasma. If Josh becomes dehydrated, he will be unable to _ _ to cool his body, and he will be at risk for _ _ as his _ _ drops too much from the loss of water from the blood plasma.
Sweating, water, sweat adequately, heat stroke, blood pressure
Identify the four components of a negative feedback loop and explain what would happen if secretion of a body chemical controlled by a negative feedback system became too great.
The four components of a negative feedback loop are: _, _, _ _, and _. If too great a quantity of the chemical were excreted, sensors would activate a _ _, which would in turn activate an _. In this case, the effector (the secreting cells) would be adjusted downward.
Stimulus, sensor, control center, effector, control center, effector
What regulatory processes would your body use if
you were trapped by a blizzard in an unheated, uninsulated cabin in the woods?
Any prolonged exposure to extreme cold would activate the brain’s _ _. This would reduce _ _ to your skin, and shunt _ _ from your limbs away from the digits and into a network of deep veins. Your brain’s heat-gain center would also _ your muscle contraction, causing you to shiver. This increases the _ _ of skeletal muscle and generates more heat. Your body would also produce _ _ and _, chemicals that promote increased _ and _ _.
Heat-gain center, blood flow, blood returning, increase, energy consumption, thyroid hormone, epinephrine, metabolism, heat production
In which direction would an MRI scanner move to
produce sequential images of the body in the frontal plane, and in which direction would an MRI scanner move to produce sequential images of the body in the sagittal plane?
If the body were supine or prone, the MRI scanner would move from _ to _ to produce frontal sections, which would divide the body into _ and _ portions, as in “cutting” a deck of cards. Again, if the body were supine or prone, to produce sagittal sections, the scanner would move from _ to _ to divide the body lengthwise into left and right portions.
Top, bottom, anterior, posterior, left, right,
If a bullet were to penetrate a lung, which three anterior thoracic body cavities would it enter, and which layer of the serous membrane would it encounter first?
The bullet would enter the _, _, and _ _, and it would encounter the _ layer of serous membrane first.
Ventral, thoracic, pleural cavities, parietal
Which medical imaging technique is most dangerous to use repeatedly, and why?
_ scanning subjects patients to much _ levels of radiation than _, and should not be performed repeatedly.
CT, higher, X-rays
Explain why ultrasound imaging is the technique of
choice for studying fetal growth and development.
Ultrasonography does not expose a mother or fetus to _, to _, or to _ _. At this time, there are no known medical risks of ultrasonography.
Radiation, radiopharmaceuticals, magnetic fields
