Chapter 1 (introduction and Historical overview) Flashcards
Stigma has four characteristics:
- A label is applied to a group of people that distinguishes them from others (e.g., “crazy”).
- The label is linked to deviant or undesirable attributes by society (e.g., crazy people are dangerous).
- People with the label are seen as essentially different from those without the label, contributing to an “us” versus “them” mentality (e.g., we are not like those crazy people).
- People with the label are discriminated against unfairly (e.g., a clinic for crazy people can’t be built in our neighborhood).
Stigma
refers to the destructive beliefs and attitudes held by a society that are ascribed to groups considered different in some manner, such as people with psychological disorders.
Knowing more about a psychological disorder leads to..
greater desire for more social distance from people with some psychological disorders
Two factors that can reduce stigma are
- Contact (coming in contact reduces stigma)
- Fimilariarity (knowing someone with a severe mental illness)
The DSM-5-TR definition of mental disorder includes the following:
- The disorder occurs within the individual.
- It involves clinically significant difficulties in thinking, feeling, or behaving.
- It usually involves personal distress of some sort, such as in social relationships or occupational
functioning. - It involves dysfunction in psychological, developmental, and/or neurobiological processes that
support mental functioning. - It is not a culturally specific reaction to an event (e.g., death of a loved one).
- It is not primarily a result of social deviance or conflict with society.
What is personal distress in the context of psychological disorders?
Personal distress refers to a person’s behavior being classified as disordered if it causes significant distress, such as anxiety or sadness. For example, Felicia felt distress about her difficulty in paying attention and social consequences, while Jose felt distress due to fear of popping balloons.
How is disability related to psychological disorders?
Disability refers to impairment in important areas of life, such as work or relationships. For example, substance use disorders can lead to social or occupational disability, and phobias can prevent activities like traveling. However, not all psychological disorders cause disability, such as with bulimia nervosa, where people may not experience impairment.
What is the definition of dysfunction in psychological disorders?
Dysfunction refers to when something isn’t working as it should, especially in the brain and behavior. According to the DSM-5-TR, developmental, psychological, and biological dysfunctions are interrelated, meaning the brain affects behavior and vice versa, leading to dysfunction in both areas.
How were unusual behaviors explained before the age of scientific inquiry?
Before scientific inquiry, unusual behaviors were often attributed to supernatural causes, such as the displeasure of the gods or possession by demons. Natural events like eclipses and diseases were also seen as supernatural manifestations beyond human control.
What was the practice of exorcism and how was it used to treat troubled behavior?
Exorcism was the ritualistic casting out of evil spirits, believed to be causing abnormal behavior. It often included elaborate rites such as prayer, noisemaking, and forced consumption of unpleasant brews. In extreme cases, measures like flogging and starvation were used to expel demons from the afflicted person.
How did Hippocrates contribute to the understanding of psychological disorders?
Hippocrates, often considered the father of modern medicine, separated mental illness from superstition and believed psychological disorders had natural causes. He proposed that imbalances in bodily fluids, or humors (blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm), led to disorders. He also viewed the brain as the organ responsible for conscious thought and emotion, laying the foundation for the idea that physical health impacts mental health.
What happened to the understanding of psychological disorders during the Dark Ages?
During the Dark Ages, after the death of Galen, the Church gained influence, and supernatural explanations for psychological disorders reemerged. Monks in monasteries cared for the sick, using prayers, relics, and potions. However, in the Islamic world, figures like al-Razi and Ibn Sina continued the influence of Galen, treating psychological disorders with more advanced, clinical methods and describing conditions similar to modern-day diagnoses.
What were lunacy trials, and how were they conducted in 13th-century England?
Lunacy trials, held from the 13th century in England, were legal proceedings to determine a person’s mental health. These trials focused on the person’s memory, intellect, and behavior. If a person was judged insane, the Crown could take guardianship of their estate. The term “lunacy” comes from Paracelsus’ theory that odd behavior was caused by a misalignment of the moon and stars.
asylums
nused leprosy hospitals were converted to asylums, refuges for the housing and care of people with psychological disorders.
What was the history of St. Mary of Bethlehem (Bedlam) and its role in the treatment of people with psychological disorders?
St. Mary of Bethlehem, founded in 1243, became a notorious hospital for people with psychological disorders. By the 18th century, it became a tourist attraction, with visitors paying to view the patients. The conditions were poor, and treatments were often crude and painful. For example, Benjamin Rush, an early American psychiatrist, believed psychological disorders were caused by excess blood in the brain, and he used bloodletting and frightening treatments to “cure” patients.
What reforms did Philippe Pinel introduce in the treatment of people with psychological disorders?
Philippe Pinel is known for advocating more humane treatment for people with psychological disorders. While in charge of La Bicêtre asylum, he promoted compassionate care, replacing harsh conditions like chains with light rooms and purposeful activities. However, historical research shows that it was Jean-Baptiste Pussin, a former patient, who first removed the chains. Pinel reserved the most humane treatment for the upper classes, while lower-class patients still faced coercion and straitjackets.
What was moral treatment, and why was it abandoned?
Moral treatment was a humane approach to mental health care in the 19th century, where patients had close contact with attendants, engaged in purposeful activities, and led lives as normal as possible. It was practiced in institutions like the Friends’ Asylum and Hartford Retreat. However, it was largely abandoned as larger public hospitals, promoted by Dorothea Dix, were created to accommodate more people, but they lacked the small, individualized care that characterized moral treatment.
How did discoveries in brain anatomy in the 19th and early 20th centuries contribute to understanding psychological disorders?
By the mid-1800s, discoveries linked specific brain areas to behavior. Paul Broca identified the left frontal lobe as essential for speaking, and Carl Wernicke linked the temporal lobe to speech comprehension. The identification of syphilis as a brain infection causing general paresis showed how brain damage could lead to psychological disorders. These findings established causal links between brain abnormalities and behavior, lending credibility to biological approaches to understanding psychological disorders.
How did Francis Galton’s work on genetics contribute to the study of psychological disorders, and what controversial movement did he help create?
Francis Galton, considered the originator of genetic research, studied twins and linked many behavioral traits to heredity. He coined the terms “nature” (genetics) and “nurture” (environment). His work led to early studies on the heritability of psychological disorders like schizophrenia and depression. However, Galton is also credited with creating the eugenics movement, which sought to eliminate “undesirable” traits from the population, leading to forced sterilization and other harmful practices, particularly in the U.S. during the late 1800s and early 1900s.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Was originated by two Italian physicians, Ugo Cerletti and Lucino Bini. Cerletti was interested in epilepsy and was seeking a way to induce seizures experimentally. He found that by applying electric shocks to the sides of the human head he could produce full epileptic seizures. Then, in Rome in 1938, he used the technique on a person with schizophrenia.
Who was Charcot and how did he influence the treatment of hysteria?
Charcot, a prominent figure in Parisian society, became interested in psychological interpretations of hysteria after observing symptoms in women. His support of hypnosis as a treatment for hysteria helped legitimize it among medical professionals during his time.
What was the main treatment method used by Josef Breuer for Anna O.?
Josef Breuer used hypnosis to help Anna O. recall and express repressed emotions, which led to symptom relief. This method became known as the cathartic method.
What did Breuer and Freud’s 1895 publication Studies in Hysteria primarily focus on?
The publication focused on hysteria, especially the case of Anna O., and the idea that repressed memories and emotions could cause psychological symptoms.
How did Freud’s view on hysteria differ from Charcot’s?
Freud believed that psychological factors, rather than neurological causes, were often the root of hysteria, emphasizing unconscious conflicts.
What are the three parts of the mind in Freud’s theory?
The three parts of the mind are the id (primitive urges), ego (mediator with reality), and superego (conscience).
What is a defense mechanism in Freud’s theory?
A defense mechanism is a strategy used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and manage conflicts between the id and superego.
What is “transference” in psychoanalytic therapy?
Transference refers to the way a person may respond to their therapist in ways that reflect attitudes or behaviors toward important people in their past, like parents.
What is repression in Freud’s defense mechanisms?
A: Repression involves keeping unacceptable impulses or wishes from conscious awareness.
Example: A professor dreading a lecture might say, “In conclusion,” to avoid confronting the anxiety.
What is denial in Freud’s defense mechanisms?
A: Denial is not accepting a painful reality into conscious awareness.
Example: A victim of childhood abuse does not acknowledge it as an adult.
What is projection in Freud’s defense mechanisms?
A: Projection is attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.
Example: A man who hates a racial group believes that the group dislikes him.
What is displacement in Freud’s defense mechanisms?
A: Displacement involves redirecting emotional responses from their real target to someone else.
Example: A child mad at her brother acts angrily toward her friend instead.
What is rationalization in Freud’s defense mechanisms?
A: Rationalization involves offering acceptable reasons for an unacceptable action or attitude.
Example: A parent berates a child out of impatience and justifies it by saying, “I did it to build character.”
What are the three commonly held assumptions influenced by Freud in contemporary psychopathology?
- Childhood experiences help shape adult personality.
- There are unconscious influences on behavior.
- The causes and purposes of human behavior are not always obvious.
What is the main focus of behaviorism in psychology?
Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior rather than on consciousness or mental functioning. It emphasizes the study of learning through experimental procedures.
What is classical conditioning, and who discovered it?
Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus to elicit a response. It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov in the early 20th century.
In Pavlov’s experiment, what were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was the meat powder, which naturally elicited salivation (the unconditioned response, or UCR). The conditioned stimulus (CS) was the bell, which, after being paired with the meat powder, caused salivation (the conditioned response, or CR).
How did John Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrate classical conditioning with Little Albert?
They conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat (the CS) by pairing it with a loud noise (the UCS), which caused fear (UCR). After several pairings, Little Albert developed a fear of the rat (CR) even without the loud noise.
What is the law of effect, and who discovered it?
The law of effect, discovered by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by presenting a pleasant event (e.g., giving a puppy a treat). Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by removing an aversive event (e.g., the car beeping stops once you fasten your seatbelt).
What is intermittent reinforcement, and how does it affect behavior?
Intermittent reinforcement is when a behavior is rewarded only some of the time it occurs. It makes the behavior more enduring, which is a key principle in maintaining behaviors like gambling.
What is modeling, and how does it influence behavior?
Modeling is the process of learning by watching and imitating others. It can increase or decrease behaviors, such as reducing fear of dogs in children by observing a fearless model interact with a dog.
How does cognition influence behavior, and what therapy is based on this idea?
Cognition influences behavior by shaping how individuals appraise situations. For example, thoughts about meeting strangers can lead to different behaviors. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps clients become aware of and change their thoughts to improve feelings and behavior.
How have contemporary television shows and media portrayed psychological disorders, and what are the implications of these portrayals?
Shows like Hoarders and Intervention may educate the public about psychological disorders but can also perpetuate stigma by sensationalizing or exploiting the disorders for entertainment. On the other hand, shows like Homeland and Mr. Robot offer more compassionate portrayals, though they may still simplify or exaggerate aspects of the disorders for dramatic effect.
What are some of the current challenges people with psychological disorders face in terms of treatment and living conditions?
Many psychiatric hospitals have closed, leaving people with severe disorders to often end up in jails or substandard living conditions. Economic hardships and inadequate treatment options also contribute to homelessness and poor living situations for those with psychological disorders. Additionally, while medications can help, they often come with unpleasant side effects, and not all treatments are universally effective.
What are the main differences between a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology and a Psy.D.?
A Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology emphasizes research, statistics, and empirically-based studies of human behavior, along with training in assessment, diagnosis, and psychotherapy. A Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology) focuses more on clinical training with less emphasis on research, aiming to provide intensive training in assessment and therapeutic techniques.
How do the roles of psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, and social workers differ in the treatment of psychological disorders?
Psychiatrists, who hold an M.D., are medical doctors capable of prescribing medications and diagnosing medical conditions but may have limited training in psychotherapy. Psychiatric nurses, with bachelor’s or master’s degrees, can prescribe medications, especially if trained as advanced practice psychiatric nurses. Social workers with an M.S.W. focus on psychotherapy, but they do not receive training in psychological assessment and may specialize in areas like marriage and family therapy.
