Chapter 1: Introduction

Question 1

Behaviorally oriented theory

Answer 1

conditioning of social/emotional behavior; emotional responses are learnable and social behavior can be studied scientifically

Question 2

Biologically inspired theory

Answer 2

social development is a product of how basic drives were handled

Question 3

Maturational theory

Answer 3

skills unfolded through time

Question 4

Differential susceptibility hypothesis

Answer 4

certain biologically based factors - including difficult temperament and a subset of molecular-genetic markers - predispose some children to be more reactive to and therefore affected by both negative and positive caregiving experiences

Question 5

Transactional model of social development

Answer 5

ongoing interchanges between social partners such as a parent and child across time that result in modifications of the social behavior of each

Question 6

Multifinality

Answer 6

the divergence of developmental paths in which two individuals started out similarly but end at very different points

Question 7

Equifinality

Answer 7

the convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point

Question 8

Psychodynamic Perspective

Answer 8

the belief that psychological growth is governed by unconscious biologically based drives and instincts, such as sex, aggression, and hunger, and is shaped by encounters with the environment (Freud)

Question 9

Psychosocial theory

Answer 9

Erikson; based on the belief that development is discontinuous and proceeds through a series of stages (went through adulthood)

Question 10

Id

Answer 10

infant is largely under the control of the instinctual id and these instinctual drives operate on the basis of the pleasurable principle

Question 11

Ego

Answer 11

the rational component of the personality, which tries to satisfy the needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviors; learning to get what you want through the tools that you have

Question 12

Superego

Answer 12

the personality component that is the repository of the child’s internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles; development of a conscience

Question 13

Oral stage

Answer 13

focused on eating and taking things into the mouth

Question 14

Anal stage

Answer 14

emphasis on toilet training; first experience with discipline and authority

Question 15

Phallic stage

Answer 15

increase in sexual urges arouses curiosity and alerts children to gender differences; period critical to formation of gender identity

Question 16

Latency stage

Answer 16

sexual urges repressed; emphasis on education and the beginnings of concern for others

Question 17

Genital stage

Answer 17

with puberty, sexual desires reemerge and adolescents and adults express these urges in romantic relationships with peers, possible for reproduction

Question 18

Infancy Stage

Answer 18

Develop basic trust in oneself or others with the risk of having mistrust in others and lack of self confidence

Question 19

Early Childhood Stage

Answer 19

To learn self control and autonomy with the risk of having shame/doubt over one own’s capabilities

Question 20

Play age stage

Answer 20

To develop initiative in mastering the environment with the risk of having feelings of guilt over aggressiveness

Question 21

School age stage

Answer 21

To develop industry with the risk of having feelings of inferiority

Question 22

Adolescence stage

Answer 22

To achieve sense of identity with the risk of role confusion

Question 23

Young Adulthood Stage

Answer 23

To achieve intimacy with the risk of isolation

Question 24

Adulthood Stage

Answer 24

To express oneself through generativity the risk of stagnation

Question 25

Mature Age Stage

Answer 25

To achieve sense of integrity with the risk of despair

Question 26

Classical conditioning

Answer 26

new stimulus is repeatedly repeated with a familiar stimulus until an individual learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same way as the familiar stimulus

Question 27

Operant conditioning

Answer 27

depends on the consequence of behavior; rewards increase the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur, but punishment decreases that likelihood

Question 28

Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 28

the association of stimulus and response in classical and operant conditioning results in learning only if it is accompanied by a reduction of basis primary drives (e.g., hunger and thirst)

Question 29

Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

Answer 29

children learn social behaviors by observing and imitating other people

Question 30

Cognitive Learning Perspectives

Answer 30

includes reciprocal determination and self-efficacy

Question 31

Reciprocal determination

Answer 31

Children’s actions produce responses by other people, leading to changes in the social environment and changes in the child, in a kind of social ping-pong game (transactional process)

Question 32

Self-efficacy

Answer 32

High self-efficacy → children who perceives themselves to be component
Low self-efficacy → children are pessimistic about their ability to deal with a social situation and either avoid trying or put forth only a modest effort when entering a social setting or confronting a social problem

Question 33

Information-Processing theory

Answer 33

Analogous to computer processing in which info in the form of symbols is entered into the system, undergoes a series of transformations, and finally provides an answer or output; is continuous

Question 34

Social information processing theory

Answer 34

an explanation of a person’s social behavior in terms of their assessment and evaluation of the social situation as a guide in deciding on a course of social action

Question 35

Assimilation

Answer 35

applying on existing schema to a new experience

Question 36

Accommodation

Answer 36

modifying an existing schema to fit a new experience

Question 37

Stage Sensorimotor

Answer 37

0-2 yrs old; differentiates self from objects and other people, seeks interesting sights, develops object permanence, and basic understanding of causality; begins to imitate and engage in imaginative play

Question 38

Stage Preoperational

Answer 38

2-7 yrs old; begins to use symbols and language; problem solving is intuitive, and thinking is egocentric, irreversible, centered

Question 39

Stage Concrete Operations

Answer 39

7-12 yrs old; can reason logically about present objects, grasps concept of conservation, can take the perspective of another person, can organize objects into classes and series

Question 40

Formal operations

Answer 40

12 yrs old on; thinking is flexible and complex; can think about abstract ideas and hypotheses

Question 41

Object permanence

Answer 41

the realization in infancy that objects and people do not cease to exist when they are no longer visible

Question 42

Egocentrism

Answer 42

tending to view the world from one’s own perspective and to have difficulty seeing things from another’s viewpoint

Question 43

Social cognitive domain perspective

Answer 43

includes domain specificity which states that processes of development are different for different types of behavior, for example, moral judgments, manners, and peer relationships. Challenge to Piaget’s theory

Question 44

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Answer 44

development emerges from interactions with more skilled people and the institutions and tools provided by the culture. Includes principles of cultural influence and the ZPD

Question 45

Zone of proximal development

Answer 45

the difference between children’s level of performance while working alone and while working with more experienced partners. Measurement is difficult

Question 46

Systems Theory Perspective

Answer 46

describes how children’s development is affected by the interacting components that form one of these systems as well by single factors within the system

Question 47

Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Answer 47

Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

Question 48

Microsystem

Answer 48

the context in which children and interact with the people and institutions closest to them

Question 49

Mesosystem

Answer 49

interrelations among the components of the microsystem

Question 50

Exosystem

Answer 50

the collection of settings that impinge on a child’s development but in which the child does not play a direct role

Question 51

Macrosystem

Answer 51

the system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem, representing the values, ideologies, and laws of the society of culture

Question 52

Chronosystem

Answer 52

the time-based dimension that can alter the operation of all other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from the microsystem through the macrosystem

Question 53

Ethological theory

Answer 53

behavior must be viewed in a particular context and as having adaptive or survival value

Question 54

Critical period

Answer 54

a specific time in an organism’s development during which external factors have a unique and irreversible impact

Question 55

Evolutionary Developmental Theory

Answer 55

focus on behaviors that ensured past survival of the species. Central principle is that parents give their children attention and resources to ensure the passage of their genes through the next generation

Question 56

Human Behavior Genetics

Answer 56

focuses on relative contributions of genes and environments to individual differences in human behavior using statistical estimation

Question 57

Life History Theory

Answer 57

suggests schedule of key events over life course is influenced by natural selection to produce the largest possible # of surviving offspring maximizing successful passing on of organism’s genes