Chapter 1: Introduction Flashcards
Behaviorally oriented theory
conditioning of social/emotional behavior; emotional responses are learnable and social behavior can be studied scientifically
Biologically inspired theory
social development is a product of how basic drives were handled
Maturational theory
skills unfolded through time
Differential susceptibility hypothesis
certain biologically based factors - including difficult temperament and a subset of molecular-genetic markers - predispose some children to be more reactive to and therefore affected by both negative and positive caregiving experiences
Transactional model of social development
ongoing interchanges between social partners such as a parent and child across time that result in modifications of the social behavior of each
Multifinality
the divergence of developmental paths in which two individuals started out similarly but end at very different points
Equifinality
the convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point
Psychodynamic Perspective
the belief that psychological growth is governed by unconscious biologically based drives and instincts, such as sex, aggression, and hunger, and is shaped by encounters with the environment (Freud)
Psychosocial theory
Erikson; based on the belief that development is discontinuous and proceeds through a series of stages (went through adulthood)
Id
infant is largely under the control of the instinctual id and these instinctual drives operate on the basis of the pleasurable principle
Ego
the rational component of the personality, which tries to satisfy the needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviors; learning to get what you want through the tools that you have
Superego
the personality component that is the repository of the child’s internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles; development of a conscience
Oral stage
focused on eating and taking things into the mouth
Anal stage
emphasis on toilet training; first experience with discipline and authority
Phallic stage
increase in sexual urges arouses curiosity and alerts children to gender differences; period critical to formation of gender identity
Latency stage
sexual urges repressed; emphasis on education and the beginnings of concern for others
Genital stage
with puberty, sexual desires reemerge and adolescents and adults express these urges in romantic relationships with peers, possible for reproduction
Infancy Stage
Develop basic trust in oneself or others with the risk of having mistrust in others and lack of self confidence
Early Childhood Stage
To learn self control and autonomy with the risk of having shame/doubt over one own’s capabilities
Play age stage
To develop initiative in mastering the environment with the risk of having feelings of guilt over aggressiveness
School age stage
To develop industry with the risk of having feelings of inferiority
Adolescence stage
To achieve sense of identity with the risk of role confusion
Young Adulthood Stage
To achieve intimacy with the risk of isolation
Adulthood Stage
To express oneself through generativity the risk of stagnation
Mature Age Stage
To achieve sense of integrity with the risk of despair
Classical conditioning
new stimulus is repeatedly repeated with a familiar stimulus until an individual learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same way as the familiar stimulus
Operant conditioning
depends on the consequence of behavior; rewards increase the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur, but punishment decreases that likelihood
Drive Reduction Theory
the association of stimulus and response in classical and operant conditioning results in learning only if it is accompanied by a reduction of basis primary drives (e.g., hunger and thirst)
Cognitive Social-Learning Theory
children learn social behaviors by observing and imitating other people
Cognitive Learning Perspectives
includes reciprocal determination and self-efficacy
Reciprocal determination
Children’s actions produce responses by other people, leading to changes in the social environment and changes in the child, in a kind of social ping-pong game (transactional process)
Self-efficacy
High self-efficacy → children who perceives themselves to be component
Low self-efficacy → children are pessimistic about their ability to deal with a social situation and either avoid trying or put forth only a modest effort when entering a social setting or confronting a social problem
Information-Processing theory
Analogous to computer processing in which info in the form of symbols is entered into the system, undergoes a series of transformations, and finally provides an answer or output; is continuous
Social information processing theory
an explanation of a person’s social behavior in terms of their assessment and evaluation of the social situation as a guide in deciding on a course of social action
Assimilation
applying on existing schema to a new experience
Accommodation
modifying an existing schema to fit a new experience
Stage Sensorimotor
0-2 yrs old; differentiates self from objects and other people, seeks interesting sights, develops object permanence, and basic understanding of causality; begins to imitate and engage in imaginative play
Stage Preoperational
2-7 yrs old; begins to use symbols and language; problem solving is intuitive, and thinking is egocentric, irreversible, centered
Stage Concrete Operations
7-12 yrs old; can reason logically about present objects, grasps concept of conservation, can take the perspective of another person, can organize objects into classes and series
Formal operations
12 yrs old on; thinking is flexible and complex; can think about abstract ideas and hypotheses
Object permanence
the realization in infancy that objects and people do not cease to exist when they are no longer visible
Egocentrism
tending to view the world from one’s own perspective and to have difficulty seeing things from another’s viewpoint
Social cognitive domain perspective
includes domain specificity which states that processes of development are different for different types of behavior, for example, moral judgments, manners, and peer relationships. Challenge to Piaget’s theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
development emerges from interactions with more skilled people and the institutions and tools provided by the culture. Includes principles of cultural influence and the ZPD
Zone of proximal development
the difference between children’s level of performance while working alone and while working with more experienced partners. Measurement is difficult
Systems Theory Perspective
describes how children’s development is affected by the interacting components that form one of these systems as well by single factors within the system
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
Microsystem
the context in which children and interact with the people and institutions closest to them
Mesosystem
interrelations among the components of the microsystem
Exosystem
the collection of settings that impinge on a child’s development but in which the child does not play a direct role
Macrosystem
the system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem, representing the values, ideologies, and laws of the society of culture
Chronosystem
the time-based dimension that can alter the operation of all other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from the microsystem through the macrosystem
Ethological theory
behavior must be viewed in a particular context and as having adaptive or survival value
Critical period
a specific time in an organism’s development during which external factors have a unique and irreversible impact
Evolutionary Developmental Theory
focus on behaviors that ensured past survival of the species. Central principle is that parents give their children attention and resources to ensure the passage of their genes through the next generation
Human Behavior Genetics
focuses on relative contributions of genes and environments to individual differences in human behavior using statistical estimation
Life History Theory
suggests schedule of key events over life course is influenced by natural selection to produce the largest possible # of surviving offspring maximizing successful passing on of organism’s genes
