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Psychology 333 Exam 1 > Chapter 1 Foundations > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Foundations Flashcards

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1
Q

Sensation

A

physical features —> electrochemical signals with specialized nerve cells —> to brain for processing

  • process of transforming physical stimuli to electrical (neuronal) signals
  • Mediated by specialized nerve cells called receptors
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2
Q

Senses

A

Physiological functions; own specialized cells, tissues, and organs for converting environmental features —> electrochemical signals —> brain

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3
Q

Perception

A

Initial sensory signals are used to form mental representations of the objects and events in a scene so they can be organized, stored in memory and used in thought and action

  • interpreting electrical signals for conscious awareness
  • Brain’s goal is to accurately represent the distal stimuli based on inferences about the information it gets from the proximal stimuli
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4
Q

Distal stimuli

A

objects and events that are perceived

*Things out there in the world eg tiger

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5
Q

Proximal stimuli

A

physical phenomena they produce

  • Physical things that actually make contact with our sensory receptors eg light or sound waves, odor or taste molecules, sharp teeth
  • These are what initiate neural signals in sensory receptors
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6
Q

Neurons

A

cells of the nervous system that produce and transmit information- carrying signals

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7
Q

Neural signals

A

information-carrying electrochemical signals produced and transmitted by neurons

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8
Q

Sensory receptors

A

specialized neurons that convert proximal stimuli into neural signals

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9
Q

Top-down information

A

observer’s knowledge, expectations and goals, which can affect perception
*Processing based on the perceiver’s previous knowledge and expectations (cognitive factors) and the entire context of a stimulus

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10
Q

Bottom-up information

A

The information contained in neural signals from receptors

*Processing based on incoming stimuli fro the environment

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11
Q

Transduction

A

Transformation of a physical stimulus into neural signals

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12
Q

Neural code

A

pattern of neural signals that carries information about a stimulus and can serve as a representation of that stimulus

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13
Q

Psychophysics

A

field of study concerned with relating psychological experience to physical stimuli

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14
Q

Natural selection

A

Darwin: biological evolution which adaptive traits are more likely to be passed on to offspring through genetic inheritance and to become increasingly prevalent in a population

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15
Q

Neuron doctrine

A

Perception depends on the combined activity of many specialized neurons, each of which responds to specific aspects of a stimulus, called trigger features

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16
Q

Cell membrane

A

a cell structure that separates what’s inside the cell from what’s outside the cell

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17
Q

Cell body (Soma)

A

contains nucleus

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18
Q

Dendrites

A

receive signals from other neurons

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19
Q

Axon

A

conducts neural signals to the axon terminals, for transmission to other neurons

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20
Q

Axon terminals

A

ending of axon, where neural signals are transmitted to other neurons

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21
Q

Nerve

A

a bundle of axons that travel together from one location in the nervous system to another

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22
Q

Action potential

A

electrochemical signal that begins in the dendrites of a neuron and travels down the axon of the axon terminals

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23
Q

Ion

A

atom that has an imbalance in the number of protons and electrons and that therefore has an electric charge (positive/negative charge)

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24
Q

Membrane potential

A

difference in electrical potential across the cell membrane, due to a difference in the concentrations of positive and negative ions inside and outside the cells

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25
Q

Resting potential

A

membrane potential when a neuron is a t rest (-7 mv)

  • Higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell than outside
  • Isn’t generating neural signal
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26
Q

Single-cell recording

A

technique used to measure the membrane potential with electrodes placed inside and outside cell membrane

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27
Q

Ion channels

A

small pores in the cell membrane of neurons through which certain ions can flow into or out of the cell
*Voltage-gated: open when the membrane potential changes sufficiently and ions can pass through only when channels are open

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28
Q

Depolarization

A

Inflow of positively charged ions causes the membrane potential to become markedly more positive (-70–> 0–> +30peak)

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29
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Briefly exceeds resting potentials

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30
Q

Refractory period

A

Following an action potential; a brief period during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

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31
Q

Firing rate

A

rate at which a neuron produces action potentials, usually expressed in “spikes per second”
*Neural code conveying useful in about stimulus into neural activity

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32
Q

Baseline firing rate

A

neuron’s low rate of spontaneous firing at fairly random intervals in the absence of any stimulus

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33
Q

Threshold

A

stimulus’s minimal intensity—> increase in firing rate above baseline rate until the neuron is firing at its maximal rate

  • Probabilistic, not all-or-none
  • The same stimulus may be detected on one trial and not the next.
  • Threshold is the intensity that results in detection on 50% of trials
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34
Q

Synapse

A

a tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite/cell body of another neuron

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35
Q

Presynaptic membrane

A

membrane at the axon terminal of a neuron producing an action potential

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36
Q

Postsynaptic membrane

A

membrane of dendrite or cell body receiving a neural signal

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37
Q

Synaptic vesicles

A

within axon terminals, tiny sacs that contain neurotransmitter molecules

38
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemical substances involved in the transmission of signals between neurons; neurotransmitter molecules released into a synapse by the neuron sending a signal bind to receptors on the neuron receiving the signal

39
Q

Receptors

A

neurotransmitter molecules fit into or bind to

*Certain ligand-gated ion channels in postsynaptic membrane to open—> potential charge—> action potential

40
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitters

A

neurotransmitters that have an excitatory effect on the postsynaptic neuron, depolarize membrane potential—> increase probability that an action potential will be generated in postsynaptic neuron

41
Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

inhibiting effect on postsynaptic neuron, hyperpolarizes membrane potential —> decrease probability of action potential

42
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

effect of an excitatory neurotransmitter, making the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane potential more positive (increase Na+)

43
Q

Cerebral hemispheres

A

Two most important divisions of the brain; separated by the longitudinal fissure

44
Q

Corpus callosum

A

a large bundle of axons that constitutes the major connection between the two cerebral hemispheres

45
Q

Gyrus (gyri)

A

elongated bump on the surface of the cerebral hemisphere

46
Q

Sulcus (Sulci)

A

Indentation between two gyri on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres

47
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

effect of an inhibitory neurotransmitter, making the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane potential more negation (increase CI-)

48
Q

Frontal lobe

A

one of the four lobes of each cerebral hemisphere; separated from temporal lobe by lateral sulcus and from and from parietal lobe by central sulcus

49
Q

Temporal lobe

A

separated from the frontal lobe and parietal lobe by the lateral sulcus

50
Q

Parietal lobe

A

separated from the frontal lobe by the central sulcus; from temporal lobe by lateral sulcus; and from occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital sulcus

51
Q

Occipital lobe

A

separated from the parietal lobe by the pareto-occipital sulcus

52
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

outermost layer of cerebral hemispheres; about 2-4 mm thick and consisting mostly of gray matter

53
Q

Gray matter

A

cell bodies of neurons making up the cerebral cortex

54
Q

White matter

A

myelin-covered axons of cortical neurons, making up the interior parts of the cerebral hemispheres; these axons connect neurons located in different parts of the cerebral cortex

55
Q

Thalamus

A

most important subcortical structure involved in perception, most neural signals pass through the thalamus on their paths from the sensory organs to cortex

56
Q

Cognitive neuropsychology

A

investigation of perceptual and cognitive deficits in individuals with brain damage in order to discover how perception and cognition are carried out in the normal, undamaged brain

57
Q

Modularity

A

idea that the human mind and brain consist of a set of distinct modules, each of which carries out one/more specific functions

58
Q

Dissociation

A

in cognitive neuropsychology, a pattern of brain damage and impaired function in which damage to some specific brain region is associated with impairment of some specific function but not with impairment of another function

59
Q

Double dissociation

A

in cognitive neuropsychology, a pattern of brain damage and impaired function in which damage to some specific brain region is associated with impairment of some specific function

60
Q

Assumption of cognitive uniformity

A

the assumption that the functional organization of human cognition and of the brain is essentially the same in everyone

61
Q

Functional neuroimaging

A

array of techniques for measuring brain activity in healthy volunteers carrying out carefully designed tasks (perceptual and cognitive)

  • Measuring electrical and magnetic fields produced by populations of active neurons
  • Measuring changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation that accompany brain activity
  • Rely on modularity and cognitive uniformity
62
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

functional neuroimaging technique based on measurement of the electrical fields associated with brain activity

63
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

functional neuroimaging technique based on measurement of the magnetic fields associated with brain activity

64
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

measurement of changes in blood flow associated with brain activity, using a radioactive substance introduced into the blood

  • 3D image with two scans of viewing different pictures
  • Cannot measure changes happen over short periods
65
Q

MRI

A

Magnetic properties of molecules occur naturally in body to produce high resolution, 3D images, of bodily structures and internal features
*Level of oxygen changes in blood —> Image neural activity in brain over time

66
Q

Structural MRI

A

Single static “snapshot” of organs, bones, joints

67
Q

Functional magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

measurement of changes in blood oxygenation associated with brain activity
*High resolution 3D every 2-3 seconds

68
Q

Absolute threshold

A

minimum intensity of a physical stimulus that can just be detected by an observer
*Smallest amount of energy needed to detect a stimulus

69
Q

Method of adjustment

A

“Quick and dirty”

  • participant observes a stimulus and adjusts a knob that directly controls the intensity of the stimulus
  • Repeat several times and get the average
70
Q

Method of constant stimuli

A

the participant is presented with a fixed set of stimuli covering a range of intensities that are presented repeatedly in random order, and the participant must indicate whether or not each stimuli was detected

71
Q

Psychometric function

A

a curve that relates a measure of perceptual experience to the intensity of a physical stimulus —> S-shaped

  • a function to the relation between intensity and % detection
  • A level of physical stimulus and a level of perceptual response; estimate threshold
72
Q

Staircase method

A

participant is presented with a stimulus and indicates whether it was detected, and based on that response, the next stimulus is either one step up or one step down in intensity

73
Q

Difference threshold (Just noticeable difference “JND”)

A

Minimal difference between two stimuli that allows an observer to perceive that two stimuli are different

  • Standard stimulus: remains constant
  • Comparison stimulus: varies from one trial to the next
  • Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
  • Size of JND varies with stimulus dimension and magnitude
  • As magnitude of physical stimulus (I) increases, so does JND
  • But ratio of JND to stimulus magnitude stays constant, so JND is proportional to stimulus magnitude, rather than being a fixed amount
74
Q

Weber’s Law

A

relationship between intensity of a standard stimulus and the size of JND
*JND=KI (K=experimentally determined constant; I= intensity of standard stimulus)

75
Q

Weber fraction

A

the constant K

K= JND/I

76
Q

Psychophysical scaling

A

process of measuring how changes in stimulus intensity relate to changes in the perceived intensity

77
Q

Fechner’s Law

A

statement of how the perceived intensity of a stimulus changes as its physical intensity changes (S=K IN I/I0)

  • S= perceived intensity; K= Weber fraction
  • I/I0= ratio of stimulus intensity I , to intensity I0 of same stimulus at absolute threshold
  • Low intensity stimulus —> need increase in physical intensity
  • Assumed JNDs were basic mental units
  • Perceived magnitude (S) is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity (I)
78
Q

Magnitude estimation (scaling)

A

assigns an arbitrary number to represent the intensity of a standard stimulus, and then the participant assigns numbers to other stimulus to indicate their perceived intensity relative to the standard

79
Q

Stevens power law

A

Relationship between physical intensity of a stimulus (I) and its perceived intensity/magnitude (S)

  • Power function: S=CI^n
  • Brightness: n1= decelerating; response expansion
  • Electric shock: n>1 = accelerating
  • Line length: n=1 =straight line
80
Q

Noise

A

Random variation in the number of action potentials produced by neurons in response to a fixed sensory stimulus

  • Variation in response from trial to trial
  • Width of best fitting normal distribution
  • External vs. Internal
81
Q

Hit

A

“Yes” and signal presented

82
Q

False alarm

A

“Yes” + signal not presented

83
Q

Miss

A

“No” + signal presented

84
Q

Correct rejection

A

“No” and signal not presented

85
Q

Receiver operating characteristic (ROC)

A

Curve representing quality of participant’s performance

  • Left + Top = better performance
  • Right + Low= Guessing/bad
86
Q

Decision-making bias

A

participant’s tendency to be liberal/conservative in deciding whether a signal was detected; indicated by value of participant’s decision criterion

87
Q

d (d-prime)

A

Difference between mean of curve showing strength of perceptual evidence when no signal is presented; depends on physical intensity of signal and participant’s perceptual sensitivity, but not on participant’s decision criterion

88
Q

Why study Sensation & Perception?

A
  • Lead to practical applications
  • Helps us understand our own biology
  • Self-discovery
  • Intellectually exciting
  • Models of how bran system work
  • Cool demos and illusions
89
Q

External noise

A

variation in physical stimulus strength from one trail to another
*Eg different numbers of photons in successive light flashes

90
Q

Internal noise

A

Variation in biological response within the receptors and neural pathways (even if stimulus didn’t vary)
*Eg different numbers of vesicles available to release neurotransmitter at a synapse on successive trials

Psychology 333 Exam 1 (3 decks)

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