Chapter 1 - Family

Question 0

What is a nuclear family?

Answer 0

It is based on a 2 Generation household of parents and their children. Most modern families are characterised as such.

Question 1

What is the family responsible for in society?

Answer 1

It is the basic unit of social organisation and one which carries out vital tasks, such as socialising the children.

Question 2

George Peter Murdock discuss the universality of the family, what are his conclusions?

Answer 2

In his study ‘Social Structure’, he examined the institution in a variety of societies.
He took samples ranging from small hunting gathering tribes to large industrial societies.
Some sort of family existed in every society, proving it is universal.

Question 3

How does Murdock characterise the family?

Answer 3

Social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, who maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted.

Question 4

Murdock discusses variations in norms if family from one society to another, his examples talks about the Banaro of New Guinea. What happens within their society?

Answer 4

The husband doesn’t have sexual relations with his wife, until she has borne a child by a friend of the fathers.
The parent-child relationship therefor doesn’t necessarily need to be a biological one.

Question 5

Extended families are divided into 2 subcategories. What are they?

Answer 5

Vertical extensions: addition of a 3rd generation, such as grandparents
Horizontal extensions: addition if members of the same generation as the spouses, such as an uncle.

Question 6

Kathleen Gough criticises Murdocks universality of the family. The example she uses to do so, is of a Southern Indian tribe called The Nayar. How so?

Answer 6

In Nayar society, before puberty girls were ritually married to suitable men. After the ritual took place however, they did not have to live together, and had no obligations to have contact with each other.
Her only duty to her husband was to attend their funeral.

Instead they had visiting husband, who they could have sexual intercourse with.

Question 7

How was the Nayar tribe different to traditional family?

Answer 7

1. No lifelong union, either could terminate at any point.
2. Visiting husbands had no duty towards offspring of their wives.
3. They did not form an economic unity, although tokens may be given they were not expected to maintain them. Instead the wives formed communities to take care of the children.

Question 8

What is a matrilineal society?

Answer 8

Kinships groups are based in female biological relatives and marriage plays no significant part of the household.

Proving either that family’s are not universal, or Murdocks definition is too narrow.

Question 9

What is a matriarchal family?

Answer 9

Female headed families, in which children are just raised by mothers and sometimes grandmothers too.

Question 10

Callahan argues the validity of Murdocks definition of a family. Why so?

Answer 10

He argues that gay and lesbian households that consist of children, either through previous heterosexual relationship or adoption, should be considered as a family too.

Question 11

What does Gittins say about the universality of the family?

Answer 11

Relationships are universal, so is some form of co-residence, of intimacy, sexuality and emotional bonds. But the forms these can take are infinitely variable and can be changed and challenged as well as embraced.

Question 12

In a Functionalist perspective, what does Murdock say are the 4 basic functions of a family in all societies?

Answer 12

Sexual, reproductive, economic and educational.

All of which are essential for social life.

Question 13

In Murdock’s eyes, the family functions for both the individual and society. How? - Functionalist.

Answer 13

Take for example the sexual function, on an individualistic level it provides sexual gratification in a restricting society, but also strengthens the family with the bonds and emotions attached to sex.

It also helps stabilise society, by containing sexual activity within a family, it causes less disruptive effects in so with. Thus the family provides both done control and expression of sexual drives.

Question 14

Criticism of Murdock.

Answer 14

1. He does not consider the possibility that alternatives to the family, could possible perform the same basic functions.
2. His picture of family is too ideal.

Question 15

Talcott Parsons argues that the family have 2 basic and irreducible functions. What are they? - Functionalism

Answer 15

They are the ‘primary socialisation of the children’ and the ‘stabilisation of the adult personalities of the population of the society’.

Question 16

What is primary socialisation?

Answer 16

Socialisation during the early years of childhood, mainly takes lace within the family.

Question 17

What is secondary socialisation?

Answer 17

Occurs during the later years, when the family is less involves and other agencies such as school and peers, exert increasing influence.

Question 18

There are 2 basic processes involved in primary socialisation. What are they according to Parsons? - Functionalism.

Answer 18

Internalisation of society’s culture: culture needs to be absorbed and accepted or society would cease to exist, shared norms are needed.

Structuring of the personality: child’s personality is moulded in terms of central values of the culture, till they become part of him/her. Such as in America, achievement motivation and independence.

Question 19

In Parson’s perspective why is stabilisation of adult personalities needed? - Functionalist

Answer 19

During primary socialisation our personality is produced, but it is the second function of the family to ensure it is kept stable, later on in life.

Emotional security if marriage should, outweigh the stresses and strain on everyday life ensuring personalities remain stable. Also provides context in which husband and wife can express their childish whims.

Question 20

Criticism of Parsons. - Functionalism.

Answer 20

1. As with Murdock, accused of idealising the family. It is portrayed as well adjusted children and sympathetic spouses. Optimistic.
2. His picture is largely based on middle class America. (Morgan)
3. Doesn’t explore functional alternatives to the family.
4. Only takes into account how the parents mould their children, while ignoring that the opposite can take place too.

Question 21

How did Friedrich Engels describe the origins of the family? - Marxism.

Answer 21

He combined Marxism with the evolutionary approach, arguing that as the mode of production changed, so did the family.

During the early stages of human evolution, the means of production were communally owned and families as such did not exist. This era is primitive communism, characterised by promiscuity.

Question 22

How did Engels explain the evolution of families from primitive, promiscuous tribes?

Answer 22

Throughout history, more restrictions have been placed on sexual relationships. He speculates that from promiscuous hordes, marriage and family evolved into polygamy, then monogamous nuclear family.

This present day family emerged through the privatisation of property. Since the family developed in order to solve inheritance disputes.

Question 23

What does Eli Zaretsky say that capitalism has done to the family? - Marxism

Answer 23

Prior to industrialisation the family was the basic unit of production. But as this transmitted to factory based work, the family life and work were separated. This caused family to be put on a pedestal, since it apparently provided opportunities for satisfaction that were unavailable outside the walls of the home.
However, it cannot meet the pressure of being the only refuge in a brutal society. It might cushion the effects of capitalism, but it perpetuates the system and cannot compensate for the alienation.

Question 24

Furthermore, Zaretsky sees the family as major prop to capitalist society. Explain. - Marxism

Answer 24

The capitalist system is based upon the domestic labour of housewives who reproduce further generations of workers.

Also, the family has become a vital unit of consumption. The family consumes the products of capitalism, which allows the bourgeoisie to continue producing surplus value.

Question 25

Criticism of Zaretsky. - Marxism

Answer 25

Jennifer Somerville: exaggerates the importance of family as a refuge from life in capitalist society.
Underestimates the extent of cruelty, violence, incest and neglect within families.
Exaggerates extent of separation of work from family life.

Question 26

What does the feminist perspective say in general when it comes to family?

Answer 26

They argue that family life still disadvantages women in some ways.

They have challenged some widely held views about the inevitability of male dominance in households and questioned whether families really are egalitarian. Bringing to light certain topics such as the worth of housework and domestic violence, within society.

Question 27

How do Marxist feminists differ to Marxists view on family?

Answer 27

Although Marxists such as Engels and Zatersky acknowledged the exploitation of women in family life, they emphasise the relationship between capitalism and the family.

Marxist feminist, on the other use Marxist concepts but see the exploitation as a key feature of family life.

Question 28

What does Margaret Benston say about the production of labour power? - Marxist Feminist.

Answer 28

The amount of unpaid labour performed by women is large and profitable to those who own means of production. To pay women, would involve a massive redistribution of wealth. The support of family is a tax on the wage earner, his wage buys the labour of 2 people.

Since the husbands earning pay for the production which is done in the home, his ability to withhold labour from the market is reduced.

Question 29

Fran Ansley translates Parson’s view that the family functions to stabilise adult personalities into a Marxist framework. How so? - Marxist Feminist

Answer 29

She sees the emotional support provided by a wife as a safety valve for the frustration produced in the husband by working in a capitalist system.
Rather than turning against the system which produced it, the frustrations are absorbed by the comforting wife.

Question 30

What does David Cooper say the family is? - Marxist

Answer 30

The family is an ideological conditioning device in an exploitative society.

Within the family, children learn to conform and to submit to authority. Foundation is therefore laid for the obedient and submissive workforce required by capitalism.

Question 31

Similar to Cooper, Diane Freely argues about the ideological conditioning placed by the family. Discuss further. - Marxist Feminist.

Answer 31

She argues that the structure of family relationships socialises the young to accept their place in a class stratified society. 
Sees the family as an authoritarian unit is dominated by the husband in particular and adults in general. 
Designed to teach passivity and not rebellion.

Question 32

Criticism on Marxist Feminism.

Answer 32

1. As with Marxism in General, Morgan criticises the tendency to talk about the nuclear family in capitalism, without possible variations in family such as social classes, ethnic groups, gay and lone parent families. Traditional ‘families’ are becoming less common.
2. May exaggerate the harm caused to them due to families. While neglecting other effects such as racism might influence families.
3. Portray women as passive victims of capitalism and patriarchal exploitation.
4. Neglect the fact that there may be some positive advantages.

Question 33

Radical feminists share one common characteristic, what is it?

Answer 33

They see the oppression of women as the most fundamental and universal form of domination.

Society is seen as patriarchal, or male-dominated.

Question 34

What is Delphy and Leonard’s perspective on exploitation of family? - Radical Feminists.

Answer 34

They see the familial basis of domestic groups as an important element in continuing the patriarchal nature of our society: that is the continuance of men’s dominance over women and children.

Question 35

Delphy & Leonard see the family as an economic system. Explain. - Radical Feminists.

Answer 35

Involves a particular set of labour relations in which men benefit from, and exploit the work of women and on occasion, their children.

The key to this exploitation is that members don’t work for themselves, but for the head of the household.

Question 36

There are several features which explains the main characteristics of the family as an economic system in Delphy & Leonards view. Explain a few of such. - Radical Feminist.

Answer 36

1. Women are hardly ever the head of a household.
2. Men cast the deciding vote, and delegate tasks to other members.
3. Family members receive maintenance and a share of inheritance but have to work unpaid for him.
4. Work family members have to do is related to sec and martial status. Women have to take care of domestic work and sexual desires.
5. Amounts inherited by family members are related to position rather than work in hours, unlike labour work.
6. Paid usually by kindness rather than money, such as holidays.
7. Economic relationships rarely involve formal contracts, therefor informal methods of negotiation are used.
8. When wives have jobs they usually still have to carry out household tasks.

Question 37

Another point that Delphy & Leonard talk about is women’s role in the family. What are they responsible for? - Radical Feminists

Answer 37

Although most men do help with some of the housework, women averagely do double the amount.
They are expected to be the main caregivers to the children and sick.
Occasionally providing direct work help, in cases of self employed.
They also need to be the moral and sexual support for their husbands.

Finally, women contribute much more work to the family life than their husbands. Despite this, get fewer material benefits.

Question 38

Criticism of Delphy & Leonard. - Radical Feminists.

Answer 38

1. Based on the assumption that all families have a head, and that it is always a man, without empirical data to back them up.
2. Delphy’s study of farming families, was specifically directed as testing their theories, when they are hardly the average household.
3. They study’s they used where all of working class families, where most researchers agree that there is less gender equality.

Question 39

What does Germaine Greer say about women as wives? - Radical Feminist.

Answer 39

Suggests there is a strong ideology that suggests being a wife is the most important female role. In fact married men score much higher on psychological well being, than single men. Yet single women tend to be more content.

Greer sees the growing amount of divorces, mainly imitated by women as a positive thing even if it is causing instability; women are no longer content to accept oppression from their husband.

Question 40

What does Greer say about women as mothers?

Answer 40

Claims motherhood can be intrinsically satisfying but is not valued by society. Children are raised by mothers, but leave home early on in life and bare no responsibilities towards them when they are elderly.

Even during childbirth more importance is given to the child rather than mother. After birth, mothers and babies are no accepted in adult societies, such as cinemas.

Mothers final function is to take the blame.

Question 41

What does Greer say about women as daughters within society? - Radical Feminist.

Answer 41

She claims that recent evidence show that daughters are quite likely to experience sexual abuse from father figures.
Children become easy targets of exploitation, because adult women are women are less willing to let men exercise control over them.

Suggests it’s commoners than we like to believe. It is an extension of male heterosexuality, since they fancy young things and often call women ‘babes’, how young is too young?

Question 42

Criticism of Greer. - Radical Feminist.

Answer 42

Jennifer Somerville heavily criticises Greer.

1. She makes sweeping assumptions with little evidence to back it up.
2. Underestimates the progress women have made in recent decades.
3. Too extremist.

Question 43

How does Jennifer Somerville differ in her liberal feminist perspective to Greer in her radical approach?

Answer 43

She offers a less extreme view of feminism on the family, and focuses more on realistic policies which might improve the position of women.

Her proposals offer relatively modest reforms rather than revolutionary change within society.

Question 44

In what way have women progressed according to Somerville? - Liberal Feminism.

Answer 44

Women have greater freedom to take paid work.
Have more choice on who or whether they marry or cohabit, have children or not. Or even their sexual preferences.

Increasingly choice of women, and the tendency of middle class and working class alike to have both partners in work has provided greater equality. However many men still don’t share the full responsibility.

Question 45

How does Somerville suggest to deal with men’s failure to share responsibility? - Liberal Feminism

Answer 45

Raises the possibility that women might do without male partners, since much of which prove inadequate. Instead get their sense of fulfilment from their children.

However the high levels of remarriage suggest that children aren’t adequate substates for relationships of intimacy & companionship.
This need for companionship, means the family will not disappear, but neither will the inequalities in heterosexual unions.

Question 46

Therefor if the need for relationships and companionship will remain to exist, how does Somerville suggest to improve women’s position? - Liberal Feminism.

Answer 46

A need to devise policies to encourage greater equality within relationships and help women cope with the practicalities of family life.
In particular to make working life more compatible with family life, so that both can be achieved. Flexibility is needed in paid jobs so an equilibrium can be reached.

Question 47

Criticism of Somerville. - Liberal Feminism

Answer 47

1. Mainly focused on the critiques of other feminist approaches but doesn’t back up her perspective with research.
2. To radical feminists, such an approach would fail to deal with the persistence of patriarchal structure and culture in the contemporary family.

Question 48

What is difference feminism?

Answer 48

Although Somerville does take into consideration the increasing pluralism in the forms of family, unlike Marxist and Radical feminist, difference feminists take it one step further.

They see the variations in the family situations of women as the defining issue in their theories. Such as lone parent families are in a different situation to gay families.

Question 49

What do Barrett & McIntosh say about the term ‘family’? - Difference Feminism

Answer 49

The idea of the ‘family’ is misleading given the wide variations that exist in life within families and the variations of household types in which people live.
If there is no normal or typical it would be impossible to claim that family always performs particular functions.

Question 50

What is the anti-social family according to Barrett & McIntosh? - Difference Feminism.

Answer 50

The family is antisocial not just because it exploits women and benefits capitalism but also destroys life outside family.
The family ideal makes everything else seem pale and unsatisfactory.
People are so wrapped up in family life that they neglect social contact with others.

Like other feminists, they question this image of a loving and mutual family, ignoring abuse and violence. In fact, 25% of reported violent cases are assaults of husbands on their wives.

Question 51

Linda Nicholson discusses the myth of the traditional family. - Difference Feminism.

Answer 51

She suggests there is a powerful ideology which gives support to a positive image of family life.
This ideology only support certain types of family while devaluing other types. She contracts traditional families with alternative families.

Question 52

What is the traditional family in Nicholson’s eyes? - Difference Feminism.

Answer 52

She defines it as the unit of parents with children who love together. Bond between husband and wife is seen as particularly important. (Nuclear)
This type of family is rather new, as the norm for working class families in the 1950s. 

Alternatives to traditional families include single parents, gay families and couples living together outside of marriage

Question 53

What the merits of different family types according to Nicholson? - Difference Feminism.

Answer 53

Alternative families, tend to be devalued.

However, Nicholson rejects this view; alternative families tend to be better than traditional families, for the women who live in them.
Eg: Poor black women in the US, derives some benefits from living in mother-centred families. By developing strong support networks between other friends and kin, they act as a social insurance system.

Question 54

According to Nicholson why is the traditional at a disadvantage? - Difference Feminism

Answer 54

1. Since both parents now tend to work, they have tremendous time pressure making child care quite challenging.
2. Children who are the victims of abuse, rarely have to the opportunity to turn to other relatives for help.
3. Heavy burden of parents can lessen love and companionship.
4. Excludes gay and lesbian relationships.

Question 55

However according to Nicholson, there are some advantages to the traditional family, what are they? - Difference Feminism.

Answer 55

Their small size tends to encourage intimacy between family members, which when work can be rewarding and long lasting.
Tend to be economically successful.

Question 56

What does Calhoun say about lesbians and families? - Difference Feminism

Answer 56

States that exploitation of women are the result of heterosexual families. Hence why in lesbian families, exploitation by men is impossible. Lesbian partnerships could be more rewarding.

Believes the anxiety between gay and straight families resides due to the anxiety about the state of heterosexual nuclear family.

Question 57

Criticism of Difference Feminism.

Answer 57

By stressing the different experiences of women they tend to neglect the common experiences shared by most women.

Question 58

What is industrialisation?

Answer 58

The mass production of goods in a factory system which involves some degree of mechanised production technology.

Question 59

What is modernisation?

Answer 59

The development of social, cultural, economic and political practices and institutions which are thought to be typical of modern societies.

Such as the replacement of religious beliefs with scientific and rational ones.

Question 60

How are pre-industrial families characterised?

Answer 60

Centre of their societies.
Responsibly for the productions of goods and services.
More together in kinship groups, take care of one another.

Question 61

How are traditional premodern families classified?

Answer 61

Patriarchal extended families including an ageing grandparent, the parents and children.
Within the family, social and economic roles are welded together, status being ascribed by family membership. Work together as a production unit, producing the food necessary for family survival.

Such as on a farm, the father-son relationship is similar to that of owner-employee.

Question 62

Talcott Parsons discusses the concept of the ‘isolated nuclear family’. What does this entail?

Answer 62

He argues that this is typical family in modern industrial society.

Don’t form a wider system of kingship relationship, it’s more out of choice than binding obligation.

This occurred due to social evolution and structural differentiation. This simply means that institutions evolve which specialise in fewer functions. As a result, families no longer perform a wide range of functions.

Ceased to be an economic unit of production.

Question 63

What does functionally related mean?

Answer 63

Importance of integration and harmony between the various parts of a society.

Parsons argues that there is a functional relationship between the isolated nuclear family and the economic system in industrial society.

Question 64

What are conjugal bonds?

Answer 64

The relationship between husband and wife.

Question 65

Young and Willmott suggest that the families goes through 4 stages historically. What are they?

Answer 65

Stage 1: The Pre-Industrial Family - Family is the unit of production. Family works as a team. Gradually supplemented due to industrialisation. Eg; farming families.

Stage 2: Early Industrial Family - Family ceased to be the unity of production. Individual members were employed as wage earners. Usually included extended family, to serve as an insurance policy against the insecurity and hardship of poverty. Usually headed by strong females forming an informal trade union, due to high death rate in males.

Stage 3: Symmetrical Family - Separation of extended family. Largely home centred, particular when the children are young. Conjugal bond is strong and compassionate. Usually are egalitarian marriages. Nuclear family is largely self contained, self-reliant unit.

Question 66

Why has the symmetrical family become so common? - Young & Willmott

Answer 66

1. Reduced need for kinship based mutual aid groups. Decrease in unemployment, better wages for breadwinners, and welfare state.
2. Geographical mobility, for job opportunities and other reasons separate the extended family.
3. Reduction in number of children meaning wives have time to work.

Question 67

What is the principle of stratified diffusion? - Young & Wilmott

Answer 67

They claim this theory explains much change in family life in industrial society.

What the top of the stratification system does today, the bottom will do tomorrow. Lifestyles, patterns of consumption, expectations and attitudes will diffuse from the top of the stratification system downwards.

Industrialisation is the source of momentum.

Question 68

Young & Willmott describe that there might be a Stage 4 in the future. What does this entail?

Answer 68

Families are seen as managing directed, more work centred rather than home-centred. Sport was an important leisure activity such as golf and swimming.
Wife’s role was to take care of the children and the home.
In most ways, this family is more asymmetrical than stage 3.

Question 69

What is the dispersed extended family according to Willmott?

Answer 69

It consists of two or more related families cooperate with each other, even though they live some distance apart.
Despite this contact is fairy frequent.

Intergeneration links are becoming stronger (grandparents) since people are living longer.
Whereas intrageneration links are becoming weaker, (same generation)