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MCAT: Psychology/Soc > Chapter 1: Biology&Behavior > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Biology&Behavior Flashcards

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1
Q

Franz Gall (1758-1828)

A

(1. 1)
- theory that behavior, intellect and personality may have link to brain anatomy
- developed idea of phrenology
- believed that could measure physiological attributes by feeling and/or measuring skull
- phrenology since proven false but did generate lots of work in area of brain function

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2
Q

Phrenology

A

(1.1)
[Franz Gall]
- if a particular trait was well-developed then the part of the brain responsible for the trait would expand
-this expansion would push the area of the skull that covered that part of the brain outward thus causing bulge in head
-this theory is false

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3
Q

Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)

A

(1. 1)
- first person to study functions of major area of brain
- Method: extirpation/ablation in rabbits and pigeons
- ablation=surgically remove parts of brain
- observed behavioral consequences of ablation
- Importance of work —> assertion that brain had specific parts for specific functions (and removal of one part weakens whole brain)

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4
Q

William James (1842-1910)

A

(1. 1)
- father of American psychology
- studied how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment
- view was among first theories that formed functionalism

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5
Q

Functionalism

A

(1.1)
(William James, John Dewey)
System of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

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6
Q

John Dewey (1859-1952)

A

(1. 1)
- functionalism
- author of article that criticized concept of reflex the arc (breaks down the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts)
- thought should focus on study of organism as a whole as it functioned top adapt to the environment

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7
Q

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

A

(1. 1)
- examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage
- first to demonstrate that specific functional impairments linked with specific brain regions
- found that a man who was unable to talk couldn’t do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of the brain (Broca’s area)

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8
Q

Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)

A

(1. 1)
- first to infer existence of synapses
- many of his conclusions held over time EXCEPT though synaptic transmission was electrical process when actually primarily chemical process

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9
Q

Nervous System

A

(1.2)
Complex web of over 100 billion cells that communicate, coordinate and regulate signally for the rest of the body
-mental and physical action occurs when the body can react to external stimuli using the nervous system

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10
Q

Types of Nerve Cells in Nervous System

A

(1. 2)
1) Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons)
2) Motor Neurons (efferent neurons)
3) Interneurons

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11
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

(1. 2)
- Afferent neurons
- transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

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12
Q

Motor Neurons

A

(1. 2)
- Efferent neurons
- transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

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13
Q

Interneurons

A

(1. 2)
- found between other neurons
- most numerous of the 3 types
- located predominately in the brain and spinal cord and and are often linked to reflexive behavior
- reflexive behavior is controlled by reflex arcs

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14
Q

Reflex Arcs

A

(1. 2)
- neural circuits that control reflexive behaviors
- Ex: stepping on a nail- Rs in foot detect pain—> pain signal transmitted by sensory neurons up spinal cords —> sensory neurons connect w/ Interneurons which can then relay pain impulses up to brain—> instead of waiting for brain to send a signal Interneurons in spinal cord send signals to muscles in both legs directly which causes the individual to withdraw the foot with pain while supporting with the other foot
* original sensory info still makes its way up to the brain but by the time it arrives there the muscles have already responded to the pain bc of the reflex arc

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15
Q

Divisions of the Nervous System

A

(1. 2)
- 2 primary component= central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- CNS=brainstem and spinal cord
- PNS divided—> somatic and autonomic
- Autonomic division of PNS divided—> sympathetic and parasympathetic

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16
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

(1.2)

Composed of brainstem and spinal cord

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17
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

(1. 2)
- peripheral nerve tissue and fibers outside brain and spinal cord
- includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 10 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves (cranial and optic nerves outgrowth of CNS)
- PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body
- subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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18
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

(1. 2)
- subdivision of peripheral nervous system
- consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin, joints and muscles
- sensory neurons—>transmit info through afferent fibers
- efferent fiber—> transmit motor impulses

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19
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A

(1. 2)
- generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions—> manages the involuntary muscle associated w/ internal organs and glands
- helps regulate body temperature—>sweating or piloerection
- function is automatic and independent of conscious control
- subdivided into 1) sympathetic nervous system 2) parasympathetic nervous system

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20
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

A

(1. 2)
- main role is to conserve energy
- associated w/ resting and sleeping states
- acts to reduce HR and constrict bronchi
- also responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretion
- Acetylcholine (ACh)=NT
- Summary of Functions
* constrict pupils
* stimulates flow of saliva
* constricts bronchi
* slows HR
* stimulates peristalsis and secretion
* stimulates bile release
* contracts bladder

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21
Q

.Sympathetic Nervous System

A

(1. 2)
- activated by stress
- closely associated with rage and fear reactions—> fight or flight reactions
- when activated sympathetic NS
* increases HR
* redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion
* increases blood glucose concentration
* relaxes bronchi
* decreases digestion and peristalsis
* dilates eyes to maximize light intake
* releases epi into bloodstream
* stimulates sweating
* inhibits salivation
* inhibits bladder contraction
* stimulates orgasm

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22
Q

Meninges

A

(1. 3)
- thick sheet of connective tissue that covers brain
- Functions:
* help protect the brain
* keep it anchored within the skull
* reabsorb CSF
- Composed of 3 layers
1) dura mater
2) arachnoid mater
3) pia mater

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23
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A

(1. 3)
- Aqueous solution in which brain and spinal cord rest
- produced by specialized cells that line ventricles of brain

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24
Q

Basic Subdivisions of Human Brain (3)

A

(1. 3)
1) hindbrain
2) midbrain
3) forebrain
* structures associated with basic survival at base of brain and structures with more complex function located higher up
* hindbrain and midbrain developed earlier

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25
Q

Brainstem

A

(1.3)
Made up of hindbrain and midbrain
-most primitive region of brain

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26
Q

Limbic System

A

(1. 3)
- forebrain developed later; includes limbic system
- group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory
- aggression, fear, pleasure and pain

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27
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

(1. 3)
- most recent evolutionary development
- outer covering of cerebral hemisphere
- in humans associated with language processing, problem-solving, impulse control, long-term planning and almost everything in between
- complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes

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28
Q

Structures of Forebrain

A

(1. 3)
- Cerebral cortex—>complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes
- Basal ganglia—> movement
- Limbic system—>emotion and memory
- Thalamus —>sensory relay station
- Hypothalamus—> hunger and thirst, emotion

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29
Q

Structures of Midbrain

A

(1. 3)

- Inferior and superior colliculi—> sensorimotor reflexes

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30
Q

Structures of Hindbrain

A

(1. 3)
- Rhombencephelon
- During embryonic development rhombencephelon divides to form the myelencephalon (medulla oblogonata) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
- Structures: Medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum

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31
Q

Layers of Meninges

A

(1. 3)
1) Dura Mater
2) Arachnoid Mater
3) Pia Mater

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32
Q

Major Function of Hindbrain

A

(1.3)
Controls balance, motor coordination [refined motor movements], breathing, digestion and general arousal processes (sleeping and waking)

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33
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

(1. 3)
- Hindbrain structure
- derived from myelencephalon
- lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions (breathing, HR, BP)

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34
Q

Pons

A

(1. 3)
- hindbrain structure
- derived from metencephalon
- lies above medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla

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35
Q

Cerebellum

A

(1. 3)
- Hindbrain structure
- Metencephalon derived
- top of hindbrain, mushrooming out of back of pons
- helps maintain posture and balance
- coordinates body movements

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36
Q

Damaged Cerebellum

A

(1.3)
Causes clumsiness, slurred speech and loss of balance
-alcohol impairs functioning of cerebellum

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37
Q

Midbrain

A

(1. 3)
- receives sensory and motor input from the rest of the body
- associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual/auditory stimulu

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38
Q

Prominent Nuclei of Midbrain

A

(1. 3)
1) superior colliculus
2) inferior colliculus
* collectively called colliculi

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39
Q

Superior Colliculus

A

(1. 3)
- midbrain nucleus
- receives visual sensory input

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40
Q

Inferior Colliculus

A

(1. 3)
- midbrain nucleus
- receives sensory information from the auditory system
* has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises

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41
Q

Forebrain

A

(1. 3)
- above midbrain
- prosencephalon
- associated with complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes
- associated with emotion and memory
- has greatest influence on human behavior
- functions not necessary for survival but associated w/ intellectual and emotional capacities

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42
Q

Prosencephalon divides into _____ and ____ during embryonic development

A

1) telencephalon

2) diencephalon

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43
Q

Telencephalon forms…

A

(1. 3)
- cerebral cortex
- basal ganglia
- limbic system

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44
Q

Diencephalon forms…

A

(1. 3)
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- posterior pituitary gland
- pineal gland

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45
Q

Neuropsychology

A

(1. 3)
- study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
- Research settings: associate very specific areas in brain to behavior
- Clinical: patients related for brain lesions

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46
Q

Brain Lesions in Lab Animals

A

(1. 3)
- method of studying relationship of brain regions and behavior
- advantageous approach bc extirpation allows for precisely defined brain lesions

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47
Q

Cortical Mapping

A

(1. 3)
- determined using electrical stimulation
- when brain area is electrically stimulated with electrode neurons fire and active the behavioral or perceptual processes associated with those neurons
- when stimulation stops, behavior stops

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48
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

(1. 3)
- measures electrical activity of larger groups of neurons
- place several electrodes on scalp which measure broad patterns of electrical activity
- non-invasive so used often in research

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49
Q

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

A

(1. 3)
- noninvasive mapping procedure
- detects broad patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different parts of brain
- relies on assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain areas of brain, the blood flow to those regions increases

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50
Q

Thalamus

A

(1. 4)
- forebrain structure
- important relay station for incoming sensory info for all senses EXCEPT smell
- after receiving incoming signals, sorts and transmits them to appropriate area of cerebral cortex

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51
Q

Hypothalamus

A

(1. 4)
- subdivided into [1] lateral hypothalamus [2] ventromedial hypothalamus [3] anterior hypothalamus
- serves homeostatic functions —> self-regulatory processes maintain balance
- key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior and sexual behavior [FEEDING, FIGHTING, FLIGHTING, FUCKING]
- helps control some endocrine functions
- primary regulator of autonomic nervous system—> important in drive behaviors: thirst, hunger, sexual behaviors
- Rs regulate metabolism, temp, water balance—> detects problems and signals to body to fix imbalance [ex: release of antidiuretic hormone which increases water reabsorption]

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52
Q

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

A

(1. 4)
- hunger center
- has special Rs that detect when body needs more food or fluid
- so, triggers eating and drinking
- if destroyed in lab rats—> refuse to eat and drink; would starve to death if not force-fed

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53
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

A

(1. 4)
- satiety center
- provides signals to stop eating
- brain lesions in this area lead to obesity

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54
Q

Anterior Hypothalamus

A

(1. 4)
- controls sexual behavior (#letmefindout)
- when stimulated in lab animals they will mount literally anything (lol)
- when damaged—> permanent inhibition of sexual activity [:(]
- also regulates sleep and body temp

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55
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

(1. 4)
- diencephalon derived
- comprised of axonal projections from hypothalamus
- site of release for hypothalamic hormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin, oxytocin

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56
Q

Pineal Gland

A

(1. 4)
- diencephalon derived
- key player in several biological rhythms
- secretes melatonin—> regulates circadian rhythms
- receives direct signals from retina for coordination with sunlight

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57
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

(1. 4)
- coordinates muscle movement as they receive info from cortex and relay this info to brain and spinal cord
- helps make our movements smooth and posture steady
- plays a role in Parkinson’s disease
- may also play a role in schizophrenia and OCD

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58
Q

Extrapyramidal Motor System

A

(1. 4)

- gathers info about body position and carries this info to CNS

59
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

(1. 4)
- chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia
- characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors

60
Q

Limbic System

A

(1. 4)
- comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain
- primarily associated with emotion and memory
- primary components: septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus

61
Q

Septal Nuclei

A

(1. 4)
- contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
- mild stimulation= v pleasurable
- association exists between these nuclei and addictive behavior

62
Q

Amygdala

A

(1. 4)
- structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors (including fear and rage)
- Damaged amygdala —> reduced aggression and fear reactions
- Lesioned amygdala—> docility and hypersexual states

63
Q

Hippocampus

A

(1. 4)
- plays vital role in learning and memory processes—> specifically helps consolidate info to form long-term memories and redistributes remote memories to cerebral cortex
- communicates with other portions of the limbic system through long projection (fornix)
- Ex: H.M.

64
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

(1. 4)
- loss of memory for any new information
- not being able to establish new long-term memories
- memory for events that occurred before brain injury usually intact

65
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

(1. 4)
- memory loss of events that occurred before the brain injury
- still able to form new memories

66
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

(1. 4)
- outer surface of the brain
- gyri=bumps
- sulci= folds
- this convoluted structure increase SA
- Cerebrum divided in 2 halves=cerebral hemispheres
- surface of cortex divided into 4 lobes: [1] frontal [2] parietal [3] occipital [4] parietal

67
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

(1. 4)

- comprised of 2 basic regions: [1] prefrontal lobes [2] motor cortex

68
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

[1.4]

  • manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
  • supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning
  • example of an association area bc it integrates info from different cortical regions
  • Damage impairs overall supervisory functions —> more impulsive, generally less in control of behavior, depressed
69
Q

Association Area

A

(1. 4)

- area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

70
Q

Projection Areas

A

(1. 4)
- perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual motor tasks
- Ex: visual cortex (receives visual input from retina); motor cortex (sends out motor commands to muscles)

71
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A

(1. 4)
- located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes)
- initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
- considered a projection area
- neurons are arranged systematically according to parts of body to which they are connected

72
Q

Motor Homunculus

A

(1. 4)
- visualization of systematic arrangement of neurons of motor cortex (which are organized according to the parts of the body to which they are connected)
- since certain sets of muscles require finer motor control than others, they take up additional space in the cortex relative to their size in the body

73
Q

Broca’s Area

A

(1. 4)
- part of frontal lobe
- important for spreads production
- normally only found in one hemisphere (“dominant” hemisphere)—> for most people both R and L-handed this is the left-hemisphere

74
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

(1. 4)
- located dot the rear of the frontal lobe
- central region is associated with spatial processing and manipulation
- makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, do spatial manipulation of objects, apply spatial orientation skills (i.e. reading a map)

75
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A

(1. 4)
- located on post central gyrus
- involved in somatosensory information processing
- projection area that is destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pleasure, temperature, and pain
- also a somatosensory homunculus

76
Q

Sensorimotor cortex

A

(1. 4)

- since somatosensory and motor cortex are very closely related they are sometimes considered as a single unit

77
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

(1. 4)
- at very rear of brain
- constrains visual cortex (striate cortex)
- visual processing
- areas of occipital lobe implicated in learning and motor control

78
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

(1. 4)
- home of auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area
- functions in memory processing, emotion and language
- electrical stimulation of temporal lobe can evoke memories of past
- hippocampus located deep inside temporal lobe

79
Q

Auditory Cortex

A

(1. 4)
- located in temporal lobe
- primary site of most sound processing including speech, music and other sound info

80
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

(1. 4)
- found in temporal lobe
- associated with language reception and comprehension

81
Q

Contralaterally

A

(1.4)
-one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body
Ex: motor neurons on left side of brain activate movements on right side of body

82
Q

Ipsilaterally

A

(1.4)
-when hemisphere communicates with the same side of the body
Ex: hearing—> cerebral hemisphere communicates with same side of body

83
Q

Dominant Hemisphere

A

(1. 4)
- usually the left hemisphere
- primarily analytic in function, making it well suited for managing details
- language, logic, math skills
- language production (Broca’s area) and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area) primarily driven by dominant hemisphere

84
Q

Non-Dominant Hemisphere

A

(1. 4)
- usually right hemisphere
- associated with intuition, creativity, music, cognition and spatial processing
- simultaneously processes pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image
- more sensitive to emotional tone of spoken language—> recognize others’ moods base on visual and auditory cues, which add to communication

85
Q

Acetylcholine

A

(1. 5)
- NT found in both CNS and PNS
- In PNS: ACh used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles
- used by parasympathetic nervous system and small portion of sympathetic NS
- In CNS: ACh linked to attention and arousal
- loss of cholinergic nervous connecting with hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease

86
Q

Catecholamines

A

(1. 5)
- include epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
- also classified as monoamines or biogenic amines
- all play an important role in the experience of emotions

87
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

A

(1. 5)
- involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness
- primary NT of sympathetic nervous system—> promote fight-or-flight response.
- NE acts at local level
- Epi secreted from adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone

88
Q

Low levels of NE are associated with…

High levels of NE are associated with…

A

(1.5)
Low: Depression
High: Anxiety and Mania

89
Q

Dopamine

A

(1. 5)
- catecholamine
- plays important role in movement and posture
- high concentrations of dopamine are normally found in the basal ganglia—> help smooth movements and maintain postural stability

90
Q

Imbalance in dopamine transmission….

A

(1. 5)
- play a role in schizophrenia
- Parkinson’s disease

91
Q

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

A

(1. 5)
- delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from too much dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
- important theory but doesn’t account for all the findings of the dz

92
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

(1. 5)
- loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
- disruptions of dopamine transmission lead to resting tremors and jerky movements and postural instability

93
Q

Serotonin

A

(1.5)
-monoamine/biogenic amine NT
-generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming
-thought to play a role in depression and mania
(Oversupply=manic states; undersupply= depression)

94
Q

GABA

A

(1. 5)
- gamma-aminobutyric acid
- produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
- thought to play important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
- exerts its effect by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane

95
Q

Glycine

A

(1. 5)
- AA but also serves as an inhibitory NT in CNS
- increases chloride influx into the neuron
- hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane

96
Q

Glutamate

A

-AA that acts as an excitatory NT in the CNS

97
Q

Neuromodulators/Neuropeptides

A

(1. 5)
- peptides involved in neurotransmission
- relatively slow and have longer effects on post-synaptic cell than NTs bc involves more complicated chain of events in post-synaptic cell
- Ex: endorphins

98
Q

Endorphins

A

(1. 5)
- neuropeptides
- natural painkillers produced in brain
- have actions similar to morphine or other opioids in body
- enkephalins=relative of endorphins

99
Q

Hypothalamus [endocrine system]

A

(1. 5)
- links the endocrine and nervous systems
- regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary gland
- control maintained through paracrine release of hormone into the hypopheyseal portal system

100
Q

Hypophyseal Portal System

A

(1. 5)
- directly connects the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
- hormones are released into the system and maintain control off these two organs

101
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

(1. 5)
- “master” gland
- located at base of brain
- divided into anterior and posterior
- Anterior Pituitary=master; releases hormones and regulates activities of endocrine glands [it is controlled by hypothalamus]
- secretes various hormones into bloodstream that activate other endocrine glands elsewhere in body
- once activated by pituitary gland other endocrine glands manufacture and secrete own characteristic hormones into the blood stream

102
Q

Adrenal Glands

A

(1. 5)
- located on top of the kidneys
- divided into adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

103
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

(1. 5)

- releases epi and NE as part of sympathetic NS

104
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A

(1. 5)
- produces many hormones called corticosteroids (i.e. cortisol)
- also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones (i.e. testosterone and estrogen)

105
Q

Gonads

A

(1. 5)
- sex glands of the body (ovaries and testes)
- produce sex hormones in higher concentrations—> increased testosterone levels in males and increased estrogen levels in females
- sex hormones increase libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function
- increases testosterone levels —> increased aggressive behavior

106
Q

Innate Behavior

A

(1. 5)
- genetically programmed as a result of evolution
- seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience

107
Q

Learned Behaviors

A

(1. 5)

- not based on heredity but instead experience and environment

108
Q

Adaptive Value

A

(1. 5)
- extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness of the species —> adaptation through natural selection

109
Q

Nature

A

(1. 5)
- heredity
- influence of inherited characteristics on behavior

110
Q

Nurture

A

(1. 5)

- influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior

111
Q

Nature vs. Nurture

A

(1.5)
-answer lies somewhere in middle aka both play a role
-possible for particular environmental factors to influence genetic factors in development for specific trait
Ex: addiction—> hereditary components make person more likely to have an addictive personality but need exposure to alcohol/drugs/etc to develop addiction {genetic and environmental components}

112
Q

Family Studies

A

(1.5)
-rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
-compare rates of a given trait among family members to those among unrelated individuals
-family studies limited bc families share both genetics and environment so can’t distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors
Sample group= family
Control group= general population

113
Q

Twin Studies

A

(1.5)
-comparing concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic (MZ; identical) and dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins—> better able to distinguish the relative effects of the shared environment and genetics
-assumption (though flawed) is that both MZ and DZ twins share the same environment so the difference between MZ and DZ twins are thought to reflect hereditary factors
-study: MZ twins rained in separate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together
[argues a strong genetic component to personality]
Sample Group: MZ
Control Group: DZ

114
Q

Concordance rates

A

(1.5)
-twin studies
-refers to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
MZ twins=genetically identical (100% genes shared)
DZ twins= share ~50% of their genes

115
Q

Adoption Studies

A

(1. 5)
- help understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior
- compare the similarities between bio relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child

Ex: adopted child IQ more similar to bio parents IQ than adoptive parents; suggest IQ is heritable

Sample Group: Adoptive Fam
Control Group: Biological Fam

116
Q

Neuraltion

A

(1. 6)
- occur as when ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds
- beginning of the start of the development of the nervous system
- 3-4 weeks gestational age

117
Q

Neural Crest

A

(1. 6)
- cells at the leading edge of the neural fold
- migrate throughout body to form disparate tissues, including: dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes and calcitonin cells of the the thyroid

118
Q

Neural Tube

A

(1. 6)
- ultimately forms CNS
- alar plate—> differentiates into sensory neurons
- basal plate—> differentiates into motor neurons
- invaginates over time
* embryonic brain begins as 3 swellings: 1) prosencephalon 2) mesencephalon 3) rhombencephalon
* becomes 5 swellings: 1) telencephalon 2) diencephalon 3) mesencephalon 4) metencephalon 4) myelencephalon

119
Q

Umbilical Cord

A

(1. 6)

- attaches fetus to uterine wall and placenta

120
Q

Placenta

A

(1. 6)
- transmits food, oxygen and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to mama
- maternal blood supplies many of the proteins and AAs needed for growth
- placenta is not a barrier; deleterious things can pass through and have deleterious effects on development

121
Q

Things that can be deleterious to developing fetus

A

(1. 6)
- rubella—> cataracts, deafness, heart defects, mental retardation
- measles
- mumps
- hepatitis
- influenza
- chickenpox
- herpes
- certain drugs (ex: thalidomide=limb defects; antiepileptics=neural tube defects, spina bifida, anencephaly)
- environmental factors such as maternal malnutrition

122
Q

Reflex

A

(1. 6)

- behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input

123
Q

Primitive Reflexes

A

(1. 6)

- reflexes that disappear with age but are present in infants

124
Q

Rooting Reflex

A

(1.6)
-automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
(i.e. nipple during feeding)
(Sucking and swallowing when an object is placed in the mouth=another feeding reflex)

125
Q

Moro Reflex

A

(1. 6)
- infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting arms and crying
- usually disappears after 4 months (its continuation at one year is strong indication of developmental difficulties)

126
Q

Babinski Reflex

A

(1. 6)

- causes the toes to spread a part automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

127
Q

Grasping Reflex

A

(1. 6)
- occurs when the infant closes his/her fingers around an object placed in hand
- adults with neurological diseases may exhibit these primitive reflexes, esp in illnesses that cause demyelination

128
Q

Gross Motor Skills

A

(1.6)

Incorporate movement from lark muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling and walking

129
Q

Fine Motor Skills

A

(1. 6)
- involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movements
- Ex: tracking motion, drawing, catching and waving

130
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A

(1. 6)
- fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals
- develops at ~7 months

131
Q

Separation Anxiety

A

(1. 6)
- fear of being separated from the parental figure
- develops at ~ 1 year

132
Q

Parallel Play

A

(1. 6)
- children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
- 2 years development

133
Q

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [First Year]

A

(1. 6)
- puts everything in mouth
- sits with support (4mo)
- stands with help (8mo)
- crawls, fear of falling (9mo)
- Pincer grasp (10mo)
- Follows object to midline (4wk)
- One-handed approach to grasp toy
- Feet in mouth (5mo)
- Bang and Rattle Stage
- Changes hands with toy (6mo)

134
Q

Developmental Milestones:Social [First Year]

A
  • parental figure central
  • issues of trust are key
  • stranger anxiety (7mo)
  • play is solitary and exploratory
  • pat a cake and peek a boo (10 mo)
135
Q

Developmental Milestones: Language Development [First Year]

A

(1. 6)
- laugh out loud (4mo)
- repetitive responding (8mo)
- mama, dada (10mo)

136
Q

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 1]

A

(1. 6)
- walks alone (13mo)
- climb stairs alone (18mo)
- emergence of hand preference (18mo)
- kicks ball, throws ball
- pats picture in book
- stacks 3 cubes (18mo)

137
Q

Developmental Milestones: Social Developments [Age 1]

A

(1. 6)
- Separation anxiety (12mo)
- Dependency on parental figure
- onlooker play

138
Q

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 1]

A

(1. 6)
- great variation in timing of language development
- uses 10 words

139
Q

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 2]

A

(1. 6)
- high activity level
- walks backwards
- can turn doorknob, unscrew jar lid
- scribbles with crayon
- stacks 6 cubes (24mo)
- stands on tiptoes (30mo)
- able to aim thrown ball

140
Q

Developmental Milestones: Social [Age 2]

A

(1. 6)
- selfish and self-centered
- imitates mannerisms and activities
- may be aggressive
- “No” is favorite word
- parallel play

141
Q

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 2]

A

(1. 6)
- use of pronouns
- parents understand most
- 2-word sentences
- identifies body parts by pointing

142
Q

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 3]

A

(1. 6)
- rides tricycle
- stacks 9 cubes (36mo)
- alternates feet going up stairs
- bowel and bladder control (toilet training)
- draws recognizable figures.
- catches ball with arms
- cuts paper with scissors
- unbuttons buttons

143
Q

Developmental Milestones: Social [Age 3]

A

(1. 6)
- fixed gender identity
- gender-specific play
- understands “taking turns”
- knows full name

144
Q

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 2]

A

(1. 6)
- complete sentences
- uses 900 words
- understands 3600 words
- strangers can understand
- recognizes common objects in pictures
- can answer basic questions

MCAT: Psychology/Soc (1 decks)

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