Chapter 1: Biology&Behavior

Question 1

Franz Gall (1758-1828)

Answer 1

(1. 1)
- theory that behavior, intellect and personality may have link to brain anatomy
- developed idea of phrenology
- believed that could measure physiological attributes by feeling and/or measuring skull
- phrenology since proven false but did generate lots of work in area of brain function

Question 2

Phrenology

Answer 2

(1.1)
[Franz Gall]
- if a particular trait was well-developed then the part of the brain responsible for the trait would expand
-this expansion would push the area of the skull that covered that part of the brain outward thus causing bulge in head
-this theory is false

Question 3

Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)

Answer 3

(1. 1)
- first person to study functions of major area of brain
- Method: extirpation/ablation in rabbits and pigeons
- ablation=surgically remove parts of brain
- observed behavioral consequences of ablation
- Importance of work —> assertion that brain had specific parts for specific functions (and removal of one part weakens whole brain)

Question 4

William James (1842-1910)

Answer 4

(1. 1)
- father of American psychology
- studied how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment
- view was among first theories that formed functionalism

Question 5

Functionalism

Answer 5

(1.1)
(William James, John Dewey)
System of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

Question 6

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Answer 6

(1. 1)
- functionalism
- author of article that criticized concept of reflex the arc (breaks down the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts)
- thought should focus on study of organism as a whole as it functioned top adapt to the environment

Question 7

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

Answer 7

(1. 1)
- examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage
- first to demonstrate that specific functional impairments linked with specific brain regions
- found that a man who was unable to talk couldn’t do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of the brain (Broca’s area)

Question 8

Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)

Answer 8

(1. 1)
- first to infer existence of synapses
- many of his conclusions held over time EXCEPT though synaptic transmission was electrical process when actually primarily chemical process

Question 9

Nervous System

Answer 9

(1.2)
Complex web of over 100 billion cells that communicate, coordinate and regulate signally for the rest of the body
-mental and physical action occurs when the body can react to external stimuli using the nervous system

Question 10

Types of Nerve Cells in Nervous System

Answer 10

(1. 2)
1) Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons)
2) Motor Neurons (efferent neurons)
3) Interneurons

Question 11

Sensory Neurons

Answer 11

(1. 2)
- Afferent neurons
- transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

Question 12

Motor Neurons

Answer 12

(1. 2)
- Efferent neurons
- transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

Question 13

Interneurons

Answer 13

(1. 2)
- found between other neurons
- most numerous of the 3 types
- located predominately in the brain and spinal cord and and are often linked to reflexive behavior
- reflexive behavior is controlled by reflex arcs

Question 14

Reflex Arcs

Answer 14

(1. 2)
- neural circuits that control reflexive behaviors
- Ex: stepping on a nail- Rs in foot detect pain—> pain signal transmitted by sensory neurons up spinal cords —> sensory neurons connect w/ Interneurons which can then relay pain impulses up to brain—> instead of waiting for brain to send a signal Interneurons in spinal cord send signals to muscles in both legs directly which causes the individual to withdraw the foot with pain while supporting with the other foot
* original sensory info still makes its way up to the brain but by the time it arrives there the muscles have already responded to the pain bc of the reflex arc

Question 15

Divisions of the Nervous System

Answer 15

(1. 2)
- 2 primary component= central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- CNS=brainstem and spinal cord
- PNS divided—> somatic and autonomic
- Autonomic division of PNS divided—> sympathetic and parasympathetic

Question 16

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Answer 16

(1.2)

Composed of brainstem and spinal cord

Question 17

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Answer 17

(1. 2)
- peripheral nerve tissue and fibers outside brain and spinal cord
- includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 10 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves (cranial and optic nerves outgrowth of CNS)
- PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body
- subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Question 18

Somatic Nervous System

Answer 18

(1. 2)
- subdivision of peripheral nervous system
- consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin, joints and muscles
- sensory neurons—>transmit info through afferent fibers
- efferent fiber—> transmit motor impulses

Question 19

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Answer 19

(1. 2)
- generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions—> manages the involuntary muscle associated w/ internal organs and glands
- helps regulate body temperature—>sweating or piloerection
- function is automatic and independent of conscious control
- subdivided into 1) sympathetic nervous system 2) parasympathetic nervous system

Question 20

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

Answer 20

(1. 2)
- main role is to conserve energy
- associated w/ resting and sleeping states
- acts to reduce HR and constrict bronchi
- also responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretion
- Acetylcholine (ACh)=NT
- Summary of Functions
* constrict pupils
* stimulates flow of saliva
* constricts bronchi
* slows HR
* stimulates peristalsis and secretion
* stimulates bile release
* contracts bladder

Question 21

.Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 21

(1. 2)
- activated by stress
- closely associated with rage and fear reactions—> fight or flight reactions
- when activated sympathetic NS
* increases HR
* redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion
* increases blood glucose concentration
* relaxes bronchi
* decreases digestion and peristalsis
* dilates eyes to maximize light intake
* releases epi into bloodstream
* stimulates sweating
* inhibits salivation
* inhibits bladder contraction
* stimulates orgasm

Question 22

Meninges

Answer 22

(1. 3)
- thick sheet of connective tissue that covers brain
- Functions:
* help protect the brain
* keep it anchored within the skull
* reabsorb CSF
- Composed of 3 layers
1) dura mater
2) arachnoid mater
3) pia mater

Question 23

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Answer 23

(1. 3)
- Aqueous solution in which brain and spinal cord rest
- produced by specialized cells that line ventricles of brain

Question 24

Basic Subdivisions of Human Brain (3)

Answer 24

(1. 3)
1) hindbrain
2) midbrain
3) forebrain
* structures associated with basic survival at base of brain and structures with more complex function located higher up
* hindbrain and midbrain developed earlier

Question 25

Brainstem

Answer 25

(1.3) Made up of hindbrain and midbrain -most primitive region of brain

Question 26

Limbic System

Answer 26

(1. 3) - forebrain developed later; includes limbic system - group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory - aggression, fear, pleasure and pain

Question 27

Cerebral Cortex

Answer 27

(1. 3) - most recent evolutionary development - outer covering of cerebral hemisphere - in humans associated with language processing, problem-solving, impulse control, long-term planning and almost everything in between - complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes

Question 28

Structures of Forebrain

Answer 28

(1. 3) - Cerebral cortex—>complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes - Basal ganglia—> movement - Limbic system—>emotion and memory - Thalamus —>sensory relay station - Hypothalamus—> hunger and thirst, emotion

Question 29

Structures of Midbrain

Answer 29

(1. 3) | - Inferior and superior colliculi—> sensorimotor reflexes

Question 30

Structures of Hindbrain

Answer 30

(1. 3) - Rhombencephelon - During embryonic development rhombencephelon divides to form the myelencephalon (medulla oblogonata) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) - Structures: Medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum

Question 31

Layers of Meninges

Answer 31

(1. 3) 1) Dura Mater 2) Arachnoid Mater 3) Pia Mater

Question 32

Major Function of Hindbrain

Answer 32

(1.3) Controls balance, motor coordination [refined motor movements], breathing, digestion and general arousal processes (sleeping and waking)

Question 33

Medulla Oblongata

Answer 33

(1. 3) - Hindbrain structure - derived from myelencephalon - lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions (breathing, HR, BP)

Question 34

Pons

Answer 34

(1. 3) - hindbrain structure - derived from metencephalon - lies above medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla

Question 35

Cerebellum

Answer 35

(1. 3) - Hindbrain structure - Metencephalon derived - top of hindbrain, mushrooming out of back of pons - helps maintain posture and balance - coordinates body movements

Question 36

Damaged Cerebellum

Answer 36

(1.3) Causes clumsiness, slurred speech and loss of balance -alcohol impairs functioning of cerebellum

Question 37

Midbrain

Answer 37

(1. 3) - receives sensory and motor input from the rest of the body - associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual/auditory stimulu

Question 38

Prominent Nuclei of Midbrain

Answer 38

(1. 3) 1) superior colliculus 2) inferior colliculus * collectively called colliculi

Question 39

Superior Colliculus

Answer 39

(1. 3) - midbrain nucleus - receives visual sensory input

Question 40

Inferior Colliculus

Answer 40

(1. 3) - midbrain nucleus - receives sensory information from the auditory system * has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises

Question 41

Forebrain

Answer 41

(1. 3) - above midbrain - prosencephalon - associated with complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes - associated with emotion and memory - has greatest influence on human behavior - functions not necessary for survival but associated w/ intellectual and emotional capacities

Question 42

Prosencephalon divides into _____ and ____ during embryonic development

Answer 42

1) telencephalon | 2) diencephalon

Question 43

Telencephalon forms...

Answer 43

(1. 3) - cerebral cortex - basal ganglia - limbic system

Question 44

Diencephalon forms...

Answer 44

(1. 3) - thalamus - hypothalamus - posterior pituitary gland - pineal gland

Question 45

Neuropsychology

Answer 45

(1. 3) - study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain - Research settings: associate very specific areas in brain to behavior - Clinical: patients related for brain lesions

Question 46

Brain Lesions in Lab Animals

Answer 46

(1. 3) - method of studying relationship of brain regions and behavior - advantageous approach bc extirpation allows for precisely defined brain lesions

Question 47

Cortical Mapping

Answer 47

(1. 3) - determined using electrical stimulation - when brain area is electrically stimulated with electrode neurons fire and active the behavioral or perceptual processes associated with those neurons - when stimulation stops, behavior stops

Question 48

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 48

(1. 3) - measures electrical activity of larger groups of neurons - place several electrodes on scalp which measure broad patterns of electrical activity - non-invasive so used often in research

Question 49

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

Answer 49

(1. 3) - noninvasive mapping procedure - detects broad patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different parts of brain - relies on assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain areas of brain, the blood flow to those regions increases

Question 50

Thalamus

Answer 50

(1. 4) - forebrain structure - important relay station for incoming sensory info for all senses EXCEPT smell - after receiving incoming signals, sorts and transmits them to appropriate area of cerebral cortex

Question 51

Hypothalamus

Answer 51

(1. 4) - subdivided into [1] lateral hypothalamus [2] ventromedial hypothalamus [3] anterior hypothalamus - serves homeostatic functions —> self-regulatory processes maintain balance - key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior and sexual behavior [FEEDING, FIGHTING, FLIGHTING, FUCKING] - helps control some endocrine functions - primary regulator of autonomic nervous system—> important in drive behaviors: thirst, hunger, sexual behaviors - Rs regulate metabolism, temp, water balance—> detects problems and signals to body to fix imbalance [ex: release of antidiuretic hormone which increases water reabsorption]

Question 52

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

Answer 52

(1. 4) - hunger center - has special Rs that detect when body needs more food or fluid - so, triggers eating and drinking - if destroyed in lab rats—> refuse to eat and drink; would starve to death if not force-fed

Question 53

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

Answer 53

(1. 4) - satiety center - provides signals to stop eating - brain lesions in this area lead to obesity

Question 54

Anterior Hypothalamus

Answer 54

(1. 4) - controls sexual behavior (#letmefindout) - when stimulated in lab animals they will mount literally anything (lol) - when damaged—> permanent inhibition of sexual activity [:(] - also regulates sleep and body temp

Question 55

Posterior Pituitary

Answer 55

(1. 4) - diencephalon derived - comprised of axonal projections from hypothalamus - site of release for hypothalamic hormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin, oxytocin

Question 56

Pineal Gland

Answer 56

(1. 4) - diencephalon derived - key player in several biological rhythms - secretes melatonin—> regulates circadian rhythms - receives direct signals from retina for coordination with sunlight

Question 57

Basal Ganglia

Answer 57

(1. 4) - coordinates muscle movement as they receive info from cortex and relay this info to brain and spinal cord - helps make our movements smooth and posture steady - plays a role in Parkinson’s disease - may also play a role in schizophrenia and OCD

Question 58

Extrapyramidal Motor System

Answer 58

(1. 4) | - gathers info about body position and carries this info to CNS

Question 59

Parkinson’s Disease

Answer 59

(1. 4) - chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia - characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors

Question 60

Limbic System

Answer 60

(1. 4) - comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain - primarily associated with emotion and memory - primary components: septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus

Question 61

Septal Nuclei

Answer 61

(1. 4) - contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain - mild stimulation= v pleasurable - association exists between these nuclei and addictive behavior

Question 62

Amygdala

Answer 62

(1. 4) - structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors (including fear and rage) - Damaged amygdala —> reduced aggression and fear reactions - Lesioned amygdala—> docility and hypersexual states

Question 63

Hippocampus

Answer 63

(1. 4) - plays vital role in learning and memory processes—> specifically helps consolidate info to form long-term memories and redistributes remote memories to cerebral cortex - communicates with other portions of the limbic system through long projection (fornix) - Ex: H.M.

Question 64

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 64

(1. 4) - loss of memory for any new information - not being able to establish new long-term memories - memory for events that occurred before brain injury usually intact

Question 65

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 65

(1. 4) - memory loss of events that occurred before the brain injury - still able to form new memories

Question 66

Cerebral Cortex

Answer 66

(1. 4) - outer surface of the brain - gyri=bumps - sulci= folds - this convoluted structure increase SA - Cerebrum divided in 2 halves=cerebral hemispheres - surface of cortex divided into 4 lobes: [1] frontal [2] parietal [3] occipital [4] parietal

Question 67

Frontal Lobe

Answer 67

(1. 4) | - comprised of 2 basic regions: [1] prefrontal lobes [2] motor cortex

Question 68

Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 68

[1.4] - manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions - supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning - example of an association area bc it integrates info from different cortical regions - Damage impairs overall supervisory functions —> more impulsive, generally less in control of behavior, depressed

Question 69

Association Area

Answer 69

(1. 4) | - area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

Question 70

Projection Areas

Answer 70

(1. 4) - perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual motor tasks - Ex: visual cortex (receives visual input from retina); motor cortex (sends out motor commands to muscles)

Question 71

Primary Motor Cortex

Answer 71

(1. 4) - located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) - initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles - considered a projection area - neurons are arranged systematically according to parts of body to which they are connected

Question 72

Motor Homunculus

Answer 72

(1. 4) - visualization of systematic arrangement of neurons of motor cortex (which are organized according to the parts of the body to which they are connected) - since certain sets of muscles require finer motor control than others, they take up additional space in the cortex relative to their size in the body

Question 73

Broca’s Area

Answer 73

(1. 4) - part of frontal lobe - important for spreads production - normally only found in one hemisphere (“dominant” hemisphere)—> for most people both R and L-handed this is the left-hemisphere

Question 74

Parietal Lobe

Answer 74

(1. 4) - located dot the rear of the frontal lobe - central region is associated with spatial processing and manipulation - makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, do spatial manipulation of objects, apply spatial orientation skills (i.e. reading a map)

Question 75

Somatosensory Cortex

Answer 75

(1. 4) - located on post central gyrus - involved in somatosensory information processing - projection area that is destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pleasure, temperature, and pain - also a somatosensory homunculus

Question 76

Sensorimotor cortex

Answer 76

(1. 4) | - since somatosensory and motor cortex are very closely related they are sometimes considered as a single unit

Question 77

Occipital Lobe

Answer 77

(1. 4) - at very rear of brain - constrains visual cortex (striate cortex) - visual processing - areas of occipital lobe implicated in learning and motor control

Question 78

Temporal Lobe

Answer 78

(1. 4) - home of auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area - functions in memory processing, emotion and language - electrical stimulation of temporal lobe can evoke memories of past - hippocampus located deep inside temporal lobe

Question 79

Auditory Cortex

Answer 79

(1. 4) - located in temporal lobe - primary site of most sound processing including speech, music and other sound info

Question 80

Wernicke’s Area

Answer 80

(1. 4) - found in temporal lobe - associated with language reception and comprehension

Question 81

Contralaterally

Answer 81

(1.4) -one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body Ex: motor neurons on left side of brain activate movements on right side of body

Question 82

Ipsilaterally

Answer 82

(1.4) -when hemisphere communicates with the same side of the body Ex: hearing—> cerebral hemisphere communicates with same side of body

Question 83

Dominant Hemisphere

Answer 83

(1. 4) - usually the left hemisphere - primarily analytic in function, making it well suited for managing details - language, logic, math skills - language production (Broca’s area) and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area) primarily driven by dominant hemisphere

Question 84

Non-Dominant Hemisphere

Answer 84

(1. 4) - usually right hemisphere - associated with intuition, creativity, music, cognition and spatial processing - simultaneously processes pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image - more sensitive to emotional tone of spoken language—> recognize others’ moods base on visual and auditory cues, which add to communication

Question 85

Acetylcholine

Answer 85

(1. 5) - NT found in both CNS and PNS - In PNS: ACh used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles - used by parasympathetic nervous system and small portion of sympathetic NS - In CNS: ACh linked to attention and arousal - loss of cholinergic nervous connecting with hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease

Question 86

Catecholamines

Answer 86

(1. 5) - include epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine - also classified as monoamines or biogenic amines - all play an important role in the experience of emotions

Question 87

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Answer 87

(1. 5) - involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness - primary NT of sympathetic nervous system—> promote fight-or-flight response. - NE acts at local level - Epi secreted from adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone

Question 88

Low levels of NE are associated with... | High levels of NE are associated with...

Answer 88

(1.5) Low: Depression High: Anxiety and Mania

Question 89

Dopamine

Answer 89

(1. 5) - catecholamine - plays important role in movement and posture - high concentrations of dopamine are normally found in the basal ganglia—> help smooth movements and maintain postural stability

Question 90

Imbalance in dopamine transmission....

Answer 90

(1. 5) - play a role in schizophrenia - Parkinson’s disease

Question 91

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

Answer 91

(1. 5) - delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from too much dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain - important theory but doesn’t account for all the findings of the dz

Question 92

Parkinson’s Disease

Answer 92

(1. 5) - loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia - disruptions of dopamine transmission lead to resting tremors and jerky movements and postural instability

Question 93

Serotonin

Answer 93

(1.5) -monoamine/biogenic amine NT -generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming -thought to play a role in depression and mania (Oversupply=manic states; undersupply= depression)

Question 94

GABA

Answer 94

(1. 5) - gamma-aminobutyric acid - produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials - thought to play important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain - exerts its effect by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane

Question 95

Glycine

Answer 95

(1. 5) - AA but also serves as an inhibitory NT in CNS - increases chloride influx into the neuron - hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane

Question 96

Glutamate

Answer 96

-AA that acts as an excitatory NT in the CNS

Question 97

Neuromodulators/Neuropeptides

Answer 97

(1. 5) - peptides involved in neurotransmission - relatively slow and have longer effects on post-synaptic cell than NTs bc involves more complicated chain of events in post-synaptic cell - Ex: endorphins

Question 98

Endorphins

Answer 98

(1. 5) - neuropeptides - natural painkillers produced in brain - have actions similar to morphine or other opioids in body - enkephalins=relative of endorphins

Question 99

Hypothalamus [endocrine system]

Answer 99

(1. 5) - links the endocrine and nervous systems - regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary gland - control maintained through paracrine release of hormone into the hypopheyseal portal system

Question 100

Hypophyseal Portal System

Answer 100

(1. 5) - directly connects the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland - hormones are released into the system and maintain control off these two organs

Question 101

Pituitary Gland

Answer 101

(1. 5) - “master” gland - located at base of brain - divided into anterior and posterior - Anterior Pituitary=master; releases hormones and regulates activities of endocrine glands [it is controlled by hypothalamus] - secretes various hormones into bloodstream that activate other endocrine glands elsewhere in body - once activated by pituitary gland other endocrine glands manufacture and secrete own characteristic hormones into the blood stream

Question 102

Adrenal Glands

Answer 102

(1. 5) - located on top of the kidneys - divided into adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

Question 103

Adrenal Medulla

Answer 103

(1. 5) | - releases epi and NE as part of sympathetic NS

Question 104

Adrenal Cortex

Answer 104

(1. 5) - produces many hormones called corticosteroids (i.e. cortisol) - also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones (i.e. testosterone and estrogen)

Question 105

Gonads

Answer 105

(1. 5) - sex glands of the body (ovaries and testes) - produce sex hormones in higher concentrations—> increased testosterone levels in males and increased estrogen levels in females - sex hormones increase libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function - increases testosterone levels —> increased aggressive behavior

Question 106

Innate Behavior

Answer 106

(1. 5) - genetically programmed as a result of evolution - seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience

Question 107

Learned Behaviors

Answer 107

(1. 5) | - not based on heredity but instead experience and environment

Question 108

Adaptive Value

Answer 108

(1. 5) - extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness of the species —> adaptation through natural selection

Question 109

Nature

Answer 109

(1. 5) - heredity - influence of inherited characteristics on behavior

Question 110

Nurture

Answer 110

(1. 5) | - influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior

Question 111

Nature vs. Nurture

Answer 111

(1.5) -answer lies somewhere in middle aka both play a role -possible for particular environmental factors to influence genetic factors in development for specific trait Ex: addiction—> hereditary components make person more likely to have an addictive personality but need exposure to alcohol/drugs/etc to develop addiction {genetic and environmental components}

Question 112

Family Studies

Answer 112

(1.5) -rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals -compare rates of a given trait among family members to those among unrelated individuals -family studies limited bc families share both genetics and environment so can’t distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors Sample group= family Control group= general population

Question 113

Twin Studies

Answer 113

(1.5) -comparing concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic (MZ; identical) and dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins—> better able to distinguish the relative effects of the shared environment and genetics -assumption (though flawed) is that both MZ and DZ twins share the same environment so the difference between MZ and DZ twins are thought to reflect hereditary factors -study: MZ twins rained in separate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together [argues a strong genetic component to personality] Sample Group: MZ Control Group: DZ

Question 114

Concordance rates

Answer 114

(1.5) -twin studies -refers to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait MZ twins=genetically identical (100% genes shared) DZ twins= share ~50% of their genes

Question 115

Adoption Studies

Answer 115

(1. 5) - help understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior - compare the similarities between bio relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child Ex: adopted child IQ more similar to bio parents IQ than adoptive parents; suggest IQ is heritable Sample Group: Adoptive Fam Control Group: Biological Fam

Question 116

Neuraltion

Answer 116

(1. 6) - occur as when ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds - beginning of the start of the development of the nervous system - 3-4 weeks gestational age

Question 117

Neural Crest

Answer 117

(1. 6) - cells at the leading edge of the neural fold - migrate throughout body to form disparate tissues, including: dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes and calcitonin cells of the the thyroid

Question 118

Neural Tube

Answer 118

(1. 6) - ultimately forms CNS - alar plate—> differentiates into sensory neurons - basal plate—> differentiates into motor neurons - invaginates over time * embryonic brain begins as 3 swellings: 1) prosencephalon 2) mesencephalon 3) rhombencephalon * becomes 5 swellings: 1) telencephalon 2) diencephalon 3) mesencephalon 4) metencephalon 4) myelencephalon

Question 119

Umbilical Cord

Answer 119

(1. 6) | - attaches fetus to uterine wall and placenta

Question 120

Placenta

Answer 120

(1. 6) - transmits food, oxygen and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to mama - maternal blood supplies many of the proteins and AAs needed for growth - placenta is not a barrier; deleterious things can pass through and have deleterious effects on development

Question 121

Things that can be deleterious to developing fetus

Answer 121

(1. 6) - rubella—> cataracts, deafness, heart defects, mental retardation - measles - mumps - hepatitis - influenza - chickenpox - herpes - certain drugs (ex: thalidomide=limb defects; antiepileptics=neural tube defects, spina bifida, anencephaly) - environmental factors such as maternal malnutrition

Question 122

Reflex

Answer 122

(1. 6) | - behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input

Question 123

Primitive Reflexes

Answer 123

(1. 6) | - reflexes that disappear with age but are present in infants

Question 124

Rooting Reflex

Answer 124

(1.6) -automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek (i.e. nipple during feeding) (Sucking and swallowing when an object is placed in the mouth=another feeding reflex)

Question 125

Moro Reflex

Answer 125

(1. 6) - infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting arms and crying - usually disappears after 4 months (its continuation at one year is strong indication of developmental difficulties)

Question 126

Babinski Reflex

Answer 126

(1. 6) | - causes the toes to spread a part automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

Question 127

Grasping Reflex

Answer 127

(1. 6) - occurs when the infant closes his/her fingers around an object placed in hand - adults with neurological diseases may exhibit these primitive reflexes, esp in illnesses that cause demyelination

Question 128

Gross Motor Skills

Answer 128

(1.6) | Incorporate movement from lark muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling and walking

Question 129

Fine Motor Skills

Answer 129

(1. 6) - involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movements - Ex: tracking motion, drawing, catching and waving

Question 130

Stranger Anxiety

Answer 130

(1. 6) - fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals - develops at ~7 months

Question 131

Separation Anxiety

Answer 131

(1. 6) - fear of being separated from the parental figure - develops at ~ 1 year

Question 132

Parallel Play

Answer 132

(1. 6) - children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior - 2 years development

Question 133

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [First Year]

Answer 133

(1. 6) - puts everything in mouth - sits with support (4mo) - stands with help (8mo) - crawls, fear of falling (9mo) - Pincer grasp (10mo) - Follows object to midline (4wk) - One-handed approach to grasp toy - Feet in mouth (5mo) - Bang and Rattle Stage - Changes hands with toy (6mo)

Question 134

Developmental Milestones:Social [First Year]

Answer 134

- parental figure central - issues of trust are key - stranger anxiety (7mo) - play is solitary and exploratory - pat a cake and peek a boo (10 mo)

Question 135

Developmental Milestones: Language Development [First Year]

Answer 135

(1. 6) - laugh out loud (4mo) - repetitive responding (8mo) - mama, dada (10mo)

Question 136

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 1]

Answer 136

(1. 6) - walks alone (13mo) - climb stairs alone (18mo) - emergence of hand preference (18mo) - kicks ball, throws ball - pats picture in book - stacks 3 cubes (18mo)

Question 137

Developmental Milestones: Social Developments [Age 1]

Answer 137

(1. 6) - Separation anxiety (12mo) - Dependency on parental figure - onlooker play

Question 138

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 1]

Answer 138

(1. 6) - great variation in timing of language development - uses 10 words

Question 139

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 2]

Answer 139

(1. 6) - high activity level - walks backwards - can turn doorknob, unscrew jar lid - scribbles with crayon - stacks 6 cubes (24mo) - stands on tiptoes (30mo) - able to aim thrown ball

Question 140

Developmental Milestones: Social [Age 2]

Answer 140

(1. 6) - selfish and self-centered - imitates mannerisms and activities - may be aggressive - “No” is favorite word - parallel play

Question 141

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 2]

Answer 141

(1. 6) - use of pronouns - parents understand most - 2-word sentences - identifies body parts by pointing

Question 142

Developmental Milestones: Physical and Motor [Age 3]

Answer 142

(1. 6) - rides tricycle - stacks 9 cubes (36mo) - alternates feet going up stairs - bowel and bladder control (toilet training) - draws recognizable figures. - catches ball with arms - cuts paper with scissors - unbuttons buttons

Question 143

Developmental Milestones: Social [Age 3]

Answer 143

(1. 6) - fixed gender identity - gender-specific play - understands “taking turns” - knows full name

Question 144

Developmental Milestones: Language [Age 2]

Answer 144

(1. 6) - complete sentences - uses 900 words - understands 3600 words - strangers can understand - recognizes common objects in pictures - can answer basic questions