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MCAT Psychology > Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards

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1
Q

Organization of human nervous system

A

Central
- Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral

  • Somatic
  • Autonomic > Sympathetic and parasympathetic
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2
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Afferent neurons; transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord and brain

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3
Q

Motor neurons

A

Efferent neurons; transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

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4
Q

Interneurons

A

Located between other neurons, most commonly found in brain and spinal cord; often linked to reflexive behavior (e.g. reflex arcs)

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5
Q

Reflex arc

A

In response to sensory info, interneurons send efferent motor signal to muscles before sensory info reaches brain

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6
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin, joints, and muscles

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7
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A
  • Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, temperature, and glandular secretions (involuntary/automatic muscles associated with many internal organs and glands)
  • Subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
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8
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • “Rest and digest”
  • Conserves energy, associated with resting and sleeping states; slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, constricts bronchi, contracts bladder
  • Response mediated by acetylcholine
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9
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A
  • “Fight or flight”
  • Activated by stress
  • Increases heart rate, increases blood flow to required muscles, increases blood glucose concentration, relaxes bronchi, decreases digestion, dilates eyes, releases epinephrine into blood stream
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10
Q

Meninges (function and layers)

A
  • Cover the brain with thick sheath of connective tissue
  • Protect the brain, keep it anchored in skull, resorb cerebrospinal fluid
  • 3 layers (inside to outside): pia mater, arachnoid mater, dura mater
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11
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A
  • Aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest

- Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities of the brain)

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12
Q

Hindbrain (components and functions)

A
  • Medulla, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation

- Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal process (sleeping, waking)

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13
Q

Cerebellum (location, function, and symptoms of damage)

A
  • Hindbrain
  • Balance and refined motor movements, speech, movement of eyes
  • Damage: clumsiness, slurred speech, loss of balance (affected by alcohol)
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14
Q

Medulla (location and function)

A
  • Hindbrain

- Vital functioning (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion)

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15
Q

Reticular formation (location and function)

A
  • Neurons somas scattered throughout brainstem

- Arousal and alertness

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16
Q

Pons (location and function)

A
  • Hindbrain

- Sensory and motor pathways between cortex and medulla

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17
Q

Midbrain

A
  • Receives sensory and motor information from rest of body

- Involuntary reflexes in response to visual (superior colliculus) or auditory stimuli (inferior colliculus)

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18
Q

Forebrain

A
  • Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
  • Emotion and memory
  • Components: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland
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19
Q

Cortical maps

A

Cortex is stimulated with small electrode > individual neurons fire > behavioral or perceptual processes are activated; used by neurosurgeons

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20
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG) (purpose and method)

A
  • Measures electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons
  • Noninvasive; recorded by placing electrodes on scalp
  • Used for research on sleep, seizures, brain lesions
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21
Q

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) (purpose and method)

A
  • Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of brain
  • Assumption: active regions have increased blood flow
  • Noninvasive; patient inhales harmless radioactive gas, radioactivity is then correlated with blood flow
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22
Q

Computerized tomography (CT)

A

Multiple X-rays taken at different angles and processed by computer to produce cross-sectional slice images of tissue

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23
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A
  • Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into body, dispersion and uptake throughout target tissue is imaged
  • Can’t give detailed structure, but can if combine with CAT and MRI
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24
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A
  • Uses magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
  • Dependent on reaction of hydrogen to magnetic field (same concept as NMR)
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25
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A
  • Same technique as MRI, but measures changes associated with blood flow. Useful for monitoring neural activity
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26
Q

Radiofrequency lesions

A
  • Used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain
  • Wire inserted into brain to determine area, high frequency current heats up wire and destroys cells and axons
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27
Q

Neurochemical lesions

A
  • Excitotoxic lesions: cause influx of calcium that excites the neuron to death
  • Kainic acid: destroys cell bodies but not axons
  • Oxidopamine: selectively destroys dopamine and norepinephrine neurons; models Parkinson’s disease
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28
Q

Cortical cooling (cryogenic blockade)

A
  • Lesion method: cool neurons until they stop firing

- Cryoloop: surgically implanted between skull and brain; reversible unlike other techniques

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29
Q

Techniques for imaging brain structure, function, and both

A

Structure: CAT scan (CT), MRI
Function: EEG, MEG
Both: fMRI, PET (esp. when combined with CT/MRI)

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30
Q

Thalamus

A
  • Forebrain
  • Relay station for all sensory information except smell
  • Receives sensory info and then transmits to appropriate area of cerebral cortex
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31
Q

Hypothalamus (general overview)

A
  • Forebrain
  • Controls 4 Fs: feeding, fighting, flighting, and mating
  • Regulates autonomic nervous system to serve homeostatic functions: metabolism, temperature, water balance
  • Integrates with endocrine system through hypophyseal portal system connecting it to anterior pituitary
  • Further divided into lateral, ventromedial, and anterior hypothalamus
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32
Q

Lateral hypothalamus

A
  • Hunger center; receptors detect when body needs food or water
  • When this part is destroyed one [Lacks Hunger]
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33
Q

Ventromedial hypothalamus

A
  • Satiety center; provides signals to stop eating
  • Lesions to this area usually result in obesity
  • [Very Much Hungry] when destroyed
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34
Q

Anterior hypothalamus

A
  • Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature
  • Damage inhibits sexual behavior
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35
Q

Posterior pituitary gland (location and function)

A
  • Comprised of axonal projections from hypothalamus

- Site of release of antidiuretic hormone (i.e. vasopressin) and oxytocin

36
Q

Pineal gland

A
  • Secretes hormone melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms by receiving direct signals from retina
37
Q

Basal ganglia (function and effects of damage)

A
  • Coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from cortex and relay (via extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and spinal cord
  • Essentially make movements smooth and posture steady
  • Damage associated with Parkinson’s
38
Q

Limbic system (location, overall function, and components)

A
  • Interconnected structures looped around central portion of brain
  • Primarily associated with emotion and memory
  • Primary components: septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus
  • [Hippo wearing a HAT]
39
Q

Septal nuclei (location and function)

A
  • Limbic system
  • One of the primary pleasure centers of the brain. Mild stimulation is intensely pleasurable
  • Association between these nuclei and addiction
40
Q

Amygdala (location, function, and effects of damage)

A
  • Limbic system
  • Aggression center; stimulation produces anger/violence + fear/anxiety. Destruction causes mellowing effect
  • Kluver-Bucy syndrome: bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior
41
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

Bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior

42
Q

Hippocampus (location, function, effects of damage)

A
  • Limbic system
  • Consolidates info from short term memory to long term memory; damage prevents formation of new memories (anterograde amnesia)
  • Can redistribute remote memories to cerebral cortex
  • Communicates with limbic system through projection called fornix
43
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A
  • Unable to form new long-term memories, but memories from before brain injury remain intact
  • Caused by damage to hippocampus
44
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A
  • Memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
45
Q

Cerebral cortex

A
  • Outer surface of brain
  • Divided into two halves called cerebral hemispheres; positive emotions evoke more activity in left side, negative emotions evoke more activity in right side
  • Divided into four lobes [F-POT]: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
46
Q

Frontal lobe (location, divisions, overall functions)

A
  • Part of cerebral cortex
  • Two basic regions: prefrontal cortex, motor cortex
  • Executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, speech production
47
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A
  • Part of frontal lobe
  • Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning, decision-making, problem solving
  • Damage to Phineas Gage caused him to be rude and inappropriate
48
Q

Association area

A

Area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

49
Q

Projection area

A

Perform rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks (vs. association area)

50
Q

Motor cortex

A
  • Part of frontal lobe
  • Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down spinal cord toward the muscles
  • Considered projection area
  • Neurons arranged systematically according to the part of the body they control
  • Areas requiring finer motor control take up more space in motor cortex
51
Q

Broca’s area AND Wernicke’s area

A

Broca’s area:

  • Part of frontal lobe, found only on dominant hemisphere (usually the left)
  • Speech production [“Brocering” a deal]

Wernicke’s area:

  • Part of temporal lobe
  • Language reception and comprehension
52
Q

Parietal lobe (location and function)

A
  • Part of cerebral cortex; located just behind frontal lobe
  • Somatosensory cortex projection area processes all incoming signals for tough, pressure, temperature, and pain
  • Closely related to motor cortex (leads to name sensorimotor cortex)
  • Central region associated with spatial processing and manipulation (for objects, maps, etc.)
53
Q

Occipital lobe (location and function)

A
  • Part of cerebral cortex; located at rear of brain
  • Contains visual cortex
  • May also be implicated in learning and motor control
54
Q

Temporal lobe (location, function, key components)

A
  • Part of cerebral cortex, located at sides of brain
  • Auditory cortex: sound processing, including speech, music, etc.
  • Wernicke’s area: associated with language reception and comprehension
  • Memory processing, emotion, and language
  • Electrical stimulation can evoke memories for past events (hippocampus located deep inside parietal lobe)
55
Q

Cerebral hemisphere laterality

A
  • Motor neurons work contralaterally, hearing works ipsilaterally
  • Dominant hemisphere (usually left): language (Broca, Wernicke), logic, and math skills
  • Non-dominant hemisphere (usually right): intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing, mood recognition
56
Q

Visual system laterality

A

Dominant (L): letters, words

Non-dominant: faces

57
Q

Auditory system laterality

A

Dominant (L): language

Non-dominant: music

58
Q

Language laterality

A

Dominant (L): speech, reading, writing, arithmetic

Non-dominant: emotions

59
Q

Movement laterality

A

Dominant (L): complex voluntary movement

60
Q

Spatial processing laterality

A

Non-dominant (R): geometry, sense of direction

61
Q

Acetylcholine

A
  • CNS: Released by basilis and septal nuclei in frontal lobe to cerebral cortex; attention and arousal
  • PNS: Released to somatic system for voluntary muscle control, autonomic (parasympathetic) nervous system
  • Loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease
62
Q

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

A
  • Primary catecholamine neurotransmitter of sympathetic nervous system; promote fight-or-flight response
  • Norepinephrine acts as local neurotransmitter; low levels = depression, high levels = anxiety/mania; secreted by locus cereleus in pons
  • Epinephrine secreted from adrenal medulla to act systematically as hormone
63
Q

Dopamine

A
  • Catecholamine that plays important role in smooth movement and posture, esp. in basal ganglia
  • Imbalances cause schizophrenia and Parkinson’s (esp. in basal ganglia)
64
Q

Serotonin

A
  • Secreted by raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla
  • Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming
  • Oversupply = mania; undersupply = depression
65
Q

GABA (brain) and Glycine (spinal cord)

A
  • Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters
  • GABA causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane
  • Glycine also causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane: by increasing chloride influx
66
Q

Glutamate

A
  • Secreted by reticular activating system to cerebral cortex for consciousness
  • Most common excitatory neurotransmitter
67
Q

Peptide neurotransmitters

A
  • A.k.a. neuromodulators, neuropeptides
  • Endorphins and enkephalins: natural painkillers
  • Requires more complicated chain of events in postsynaptic cell than regular neurotransmitters; slow response, longer effects
68
Q

Hormones

A
  • Chemical messengers of endocrine system
  • Slower response than neurotransmitters because they travel through bloodstream to reach target
  • Release controlled by hypothalamus and the hypophyseal portal system of pituitary gland
69
Q

Pituitary gland (location and function)

A
  • Located at back of brain

- Anterior pituitary: controlled by hypothalamus; releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands

70
Q

Adrenal glands (location, sub-divisions, and functions)

A
  • Located on top of kidneys
  • Adrenal medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of sympathetic nervous system
  • Adrenal cortex: produces corticosteroids (like cortisol), sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
71
Q

Gonads

A
  • Sex glands (testes in males and ovaries in females)
  • Produce testosterone and estrogen
  • Increase libido
  • High testosterone => aggressive behavior
72
Q

Innate behavior

A

Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or species

Examples: Reflexes, taxis (bugs fly toward light), kinesis (rats’ random scurrying)

73
Q

Learned behavior

A

Behaviors based on experience and environment rather than heredity

Examples: Habituation (response to stimulus decreases over time), classical conditioning, operant conditioning, insight learning (solving a problem using past skills), latent learning (learned behavior not expressed until required)

74
Q

Adaptive value

A

The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness of species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

75
Q

Family studies

A

Assume similar genotype; compare rates of trait among family members to those of unrelated individuals. Limited because families share both genetics and environment

76
Q

Twin studies

A

Compare concordance rates (likelihood of sharing same trait) for trait between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.

77
Q

Adoption studies

A

Compares biological and adoptive relatives to adopted child to investigate nature vs. nurture

78
Q

Reflex (general)

A

Behavior that occurs in response to given stimulus without higher cognitive input

79
Q

Primitive reflex

A

Reflexes that disappear with age

80
Q

Rooting reflex

A

Primitive reflex; automatic turning of head in direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek

81
Q

Moro reflex

A

Primitive reflex; Infants react to abrupt movement of head by flinging out arms, then slowly retracting arms and crying

82
Q

Babinski reflex

A

Primitive reflex; causes toes to spread automatically when sole of foot is stimulated

83
Q

Grasping reflex

A

Primitive reflex; occurs when infant closes fingers around object placed in hand. Also present in adults with diseases that cause demyelination.

84
Q

Developmental milestone trends in gross motor skills, social skills, language skills

A

Motor skills

  • Progress in head to toe order
  • Skills at core develop before skills at extremities

Social skills
- Move from being parent-oriented to self-oriented

Language becomes more complex and structured

85
Q

Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety ages

A

7 months, 1 year, respectively

86
Q

Cortisol

A

Stress hormone produced by adrenal cortex

87
Q

Neurulation process

A
  • Notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creates neural tube topped with neural crest cells
  • Neural tube becomes CNS
  • Neural crest spreads and differentiates throughout body

MCAT Psychology (2 decks)

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