Chapter 1: Basic Facts & Key Concepts

Question 1

Relationship

Answer 1

Refers to a state of independence that arises from ongoing interactions, an two people are “in a relation” or “have a relationship” to the extent that they interact and mutually influence each other - how one partner behaves (i.e., acts, thinks, or feels) influences how the other partner behaves (i.e., acts, thinks, or feels), and vice versa.
- A relationship “lives” in the interaction between two people, not within a single individual.

Question 2

Interdependence

Answer 2

Mutual influence; the behaviours of one partner influence the behaviours of the other. A pattern of mutual influence can constitute evidence of a relationship.

Question 3

Interaction Episode compared to a Relationship

Answer 3

An Interaction Episode involves an isolated exchange (or set of exchanges) that occurs within a limited span of time, whereas a Relationship involves repeated interactions over a longer duration of time.

Question 4

In order for people to be in a relationship, three conditions must be met:

Answer 4

• The two people must interact and influence each other’s behaviours - that is, they must be interdependent.
• Their interaction must be unique and not based on the enactment of social roles - i.e., how the two interact with each other must be different from how other people interact.
• Their interaction history must be represented cognitively and held in memory - this is, as a result of their interaction(s), the partners must have formed a mental representation of their relationship, which influences their future interactions.

Question 5

Role-based Interactions

Answer 5

Each person’s behaviour is influenced not by the partner’s behaviour but by social normas and prescriptions that govern the behaviours of all people who assume that particular role.
- Behaviour tends to be the same regardless of who the two individuals are, when and where the interaction occurs, or what their transaction involves.
- The interaction follows much the same course because the behaviour of both individuals is primarily determined by their group membership and occupancy of particular social positions.

Question 6

Formal / Role-based Relationships

Answer 6

Role-based Interactions that continue to be ongoing associations over multiple occasions. Some do not consider this a relationship.

Question 7

Mental Representation

Answer 7

Often called a relationship schema, they must have cognitively represented and organized their previous interactions and hold them in memory.
- This allows partners to respond to each other in their own unique, non-role-based way.

Question 8

Methods for Establishing Interdependence

Answer 8

• Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM)
• Time-Series Analyses

Question 9

Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM)

Answer 9

APIM recognizes that a person’s experiences in a relationship are a function of both of their own characteristics or properties (called the actor effect) and the partner’s characteristics or properties (called the partner effect - this is a measure of influence).

The Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) is a statistical model that is used to analyze dyadic data, or data that involves two people who are in a relationship or interact with each other. The APIM allows researchers to examine how the behavior and characteristics of one person (the actor) are related to the behavior and characteristics of the other person (the partner), and how these relationships vary over time.

Question 10

Dyad

Answer 10

A dyad is a group of two people who are in a relationship or interact with each other.

Question 11

Actor Effect

Answer 11

The actor effect in the actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) refers to the influence that an individual’s behavior and characteristics have on their own outcomes or experiences. In the context of a dyadic relationship, the actor effect refers to the ways in which an individual’s behavior and characteristics affect their own satisfaction with the relationship, their communication patterns, and their overall relationship functioning.

For example, if one partner in a dyad is more controlling or demanding, this may have an impact on their own satisfaction with the relationship, as well as the satisfaction of the other partner. Similarly, if one partner is more supportive and communicative, this may have positive effects on their own relationship satisfaction and the satisfaction of the other partner.

Question 12

Partner Effect

Answer 12

that the behavior and characteristics of one person in a dyadic relationship have on the outcomes or experiences of the other person. In the context of the APIM, the partner effect refers to the ways in which the behavior and characteristics of one person in a relationship affect the satisfaction, communication patterns, and overall relationship functioning of the other person.

For example, if one partner in a dyad is more supportive and communicative, this may have a positive effect on the satisfaction and overall functioning of the other partner. On the other hand, if one partner is more controlling or demanding, this may have a negative effect on the satisfaction and functioning of the other partner.

Question 13

What is the difference between the actor effect and the partner effect?

Answer 13

The actor effect focuses on the influence that an individual’s behaviour and characteristics have on their own outcomes and experiences within a relationship, while the partner effect focuses on the influence that one person’s behavior and characteristics have on the outcomes and experiences of the other person.

The actor effect refers to the influence that an individual’s behaviour and characteristics have on their own outcomes or experiences within a dyadic relationship. In other words, it refers to the ways in which an individual’s behaviour and characteristics affect their own satisfaction with the relationship, their communication patterns, and their overall relationship functioning.

The partner effect, on the other hand, refers to the influence that the behaviour and characteristics of one person in a dyadic relationship have on the outcomes or experiences of the other person. This includes the ways in which the behavior and characteristics of one partner can affect the satisfaction, communication patterns, and overall relationship functioning of the other partner.

Question 14

Time-series Analyses

Answer 14

In a time-series analysis, interdependence or mutual influence can be established by examining the degree to which the behavior of one partner can be predicted by the behavior of the other partner. This can be done by comparing the ability of each partner’s previous behavior to predict their current behavior with the ability of the other partner’s previous behavior to predict their current behavior.

In a time-series analysis, interdependence or mutual influence is established by determining that the behaviour of each partner can be better predicted by the other partner’s previous behaviour than by his or her own previous behaviour.

Like the APIM, time-series analyses recognize that a person’s behaviour is often influenced by their own previous behaviour (actor effect) and their partner’s previous behaviour (partner effect).

Question 15

Low Interdependence in a Time-series Analyses

Answer 15

On the other hand, if the behaviour of one partner is better predicted by their own previous behaviour than by the previous behaviour of the other partner, this suggests that there is a lower level of interdependence or mutual influence in the relationship. This means that the behaviour of one partner is less influenced by the behaviour of the other partner and that the two partners are less reliant on each other in achieving shared goals or objectives.

Question 16

High Interdependence in a Time-series Analyses

Answer 16

If the behavior of one partner is better predicted by the previous behavior of the other partner than by their own previous behavior, this suggests that there is a high level of interdependence or mutual influence in the relationship. This means that the behavior of one partner is significantly influenced by the behavior of the other partner and that the two partners are reliant on each other to achieve shared goals or objectives.

Question 17

Mating Relationship (romantic, dating, marital, or reproductive relationship)

Answer 17

Differentiation from other relationships by the occurrence or potential occurrence of sexual involvement between partners. Sexual exchanges and activities are viewed y the partners as legitimate expectations for their relationship regardless of whether or not they are currently engaging in such activities, i.e., the occurrence of sexual activity within a mating relationship would not be unexpected or inappropriate.
- governed by social norms, expectations, and rules
- assumptions and roles associated within relationship tend to be more formalized

Question 18

Family Relationships (kinship, kin relationships)

Answer 18

Partnerships or associations among people who are genetically or legally related, connected by blood, adoption, or marriage.
- Involuntary and thus considered relatively permanent; little choice in selecting our partners or dissolving our relationship with them
- A greater number of formal social and legal obligations and expectations

Question 19

Friend Relationships

Answer 19

A distinguishing feature is that friend relationships are voluntary, guided by personal choice and determination. Motivation for friendship involves fulfilling socio-emotional needs as such as companionship, emotional support, affection, and intimacy.
- Fewer social norms and obligations.
- No ceremonies surrounding the formation or dissolution of friend relationships, and the partners are generally free from social expectations that dictate how and when they should interact.
- Inherently more flexible.

Question 20

Two Types of Close Relationships

Answer 20

• Subjectively close relationships
• Behaviourally close relationships

Question 21

Subjectively Close (Intimate) Relationships

Answer 21

Relationships are characterized by high levels of subjective closeness; that is, partners feel close, connected, or bonded to one another. Ways to Assess Include:
- Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale (IOS)
- Self-report

Question 22

Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale (IOS)

Answer 22

Social psychologist Arthur Aron and colleagues (1992) developed the single-item Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) scale to measure how close the respondent feels with another person or group.

Respondents see seven pairs of circles that range from just touching to almost completely overlapping. One circle in each pair is labeled “self,” and the second circle is labeled “other.” Respondents choose one of the seven pairs to answer the question, “Which picture best describes your relationship with [this person/group]?” Researchers indicate what person or group the “other” circle stands for (e.g., “your romantic partner,” “your parents,” “your community,” etc.)

The IOS consists of a series of statements that individuals are asked to rate on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The statements assess the extent to which individuals feel connected to their partner, see their partner as an integral part of their self, and include their partner in their thoughts and feelings.

Research has shown that individuals who score higher on the IOS tend to have stronger, more satisfying relationships and are more likely to engage in behaviours that support the well-being and happiness of their partner. The IOS is a useful tool for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the dynamics of close relationships and the factors that contribute to relationship satisfaction and functioning.

Question 23

Behaviourally Close (Highly Interdependent) Relationships

Answer 23

Behaviour closeness is tied to the partner’s interaction pattern and refers to the extent to which they exhibit high interdependence or mutual influence. Four properties are necessary to establish a high level of interdependence:
- Frequency of Influence
- Diversity of Influence
- Strength of Influence
- Duration of Influence

Question 24

Frequency of Influence

Answer 24

To establish a high level of interdependence, partners must frequently influence each other’s behaviour on multiple occasions.

Question 25

Diversity of Influence

Answer 25

To establish a high level of interdependence, each partner must influence a diversity of the other partner’s behaviours and outcomes i.e., a relationship between two people who only influence the other work-related outcomes would be considered less close than a relationship in which each partner influences the books, movies, hobbies, attitudes etc.

Question 26

Strength of Influence

Answer 26

To establish a high level of interdependence, the partner’s influence on each other must be strong. Strength of influence is indicated by the speed with which a person responds to other, the magnitude (intensity) of the response to the other, and the number and importance of behaviours that are affected by the other.

Question 27

Duration of Influence

Answer 27

To establish a high level of interdependence, influence must characterize the partner’s interaction pattern for a relatively long duration or time.

Question 28

Relationship Closeness Inventory (RCI)

Answer 28

The Relationship Closeness Inventory (RCI) is a psychological measure that is used to assess the quality and closeness of an individual’s interpersonal relationships. The RCI is composed of three self-report subscales equally weighted and summed to obtain a total closeness score.
- Frequency subscale assesses the amount of time the partners spend alone.
- Diversity subscale provides participants with a list of typical activities for their demographic group and assesses the number of activities the participants and their partners did together alone the previous week.
- Strength subscale: participants are asked to indicate the degree of influence their partners have on their thoughts, feelings, actions, future plans, and goals.
- Relationship duration is measured but not included in the RCI total score.

Question 29

Variations of Subjectively Close and Behaviourally Close Relationships

Answer 29

There are two types of closeness we can experience in our interpersonal relationships - a type of closeness involving subjective feelings of connection and bondedness and/or positive affective experiences and a type characterized by a high degree of behavioural interdependence.

Some relationships have both, some have only one:
- Best friends can have both
- A geographically distant but much-loved aunt would be viewed as subjectively but not behaviorally closed (intimate but not highly interdependent).

Question 30

Why is it challenging to study relationships?

Answer 30

• Societal taboos that have historically hindered scientific examination of relationship phenomena
• The complex nature of relationships (the diversity of conditions that affect them)
• Needs to maintain currency in many different fields;i it is multidisciplinary

Question 31

Levels of complexity in Relationships

Answer 31

Relationships are highly complex systems that exist in a hierarchy of other systems, including the physical environment (temp, geography, crowding, economic conditions), the social environment (neighbourhood, family, other ppl), and the larger society and culture. Relationships also encompass a host of other systems, such as those residing in or associated with the individual partners. A change in any one of these systems tends to produce changes in the other systems.

No relationship exits in a vacuum, each one is involved in a dynamic exchange of influence with other systems it encapsulates and inwhic it is embedded.

Levels of complexity:
- Processes within the Individual (attitudes, cognitions, affect, personality, hormones, brain activity)
- Individual behaviour
- Relationship
- Physical Environment
- Social Environment
- Society
- Culture

Question 32

Three Broad Classes/Analytic Levels

Answer 32

Relationship scientists explore a diversity of factors at varying levels of analysis. These factors fall into three broad classes or analytic leaves:
- Personal factors
- Relational factors
- environmental factors

Question 33

Personal Factors

Answer 33

Variables that are associated with the individual partners (often designated as P [Person] and O [Other]).

These include personality traits or dispositional tendencies and any other relatively enduring feature or attribute that each partner brings to the relationship.

Question 34

Relational (PxO) Factors

Answer 34

These factors are located in neither partner but instead, emerge from the partner’s interactions or result from the combination of each partner’s characteristics. Includes:
- proximity
- similarity
- equity
- mutual disclosure
- feelings of attraction between the partners
- attributional patterns
- communication styles
- conflict resolution strategies

Question 35

Environmental Factors

Answer 35

Include variables located in the physical and social environment in which the relationship is embedded.
- economic conditions of the partner
- occupational situation
- social objects (friends, family members, children, and alternative partners)
- social or religious customs
- laws, the political climate