Chapter 1 - Background and Rationale for the Study of Learning

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

• gaining information through experience

- gaining information through formal instruction

Question 2

What is the philosophical definition of learning?

Answer 2

The process of accumulating knowledge (this is a bit circular)

Question 3

What kinds of knowledge is there?

Answer 3

Declarative knowledge: stuff you can explain

Procedural knowledge: knowing how to do something but not being able to express it clearly (like riding a bike)

Question 4

Are knowledge and understanding the same thing?

Answer 4

No. Understanding is something you can communicate

Question 5

What is the biological definition of learning?

Answer 5

A biological process that facilitates adaptation to one’s environment

Question 6

What is the psychological definition of learning?

Answer 6

Acquisition of new behaviour due to exposure to a similar stimulus in the past

Question 7

What is behaviour?

Answer 7

Any observable or measurable act that could be a response to either an external stimulus or an internal one

Question 8

What are some problems with the psychological definition of learning?

Answer 8

There isn’t always an acquisition of new behaviour

changes in behaviour may not be due to learning

Question 9

What is latent learning?

Answer 9

behaviour is learned, but remains dormant until conditions are favourable (ex. knowing how to drive a car but not conscious until behind the wheel)

Question 10

Describe the study by Tolman and Honzik (1930) on latent learning?

Answer 10

There were 3 groups of rats: 
- hungry and not rewarded
- hungry and rewarded
- hungry and rewarded later
The findings were that the rats who were not rewarded did not learn the maze, the rats who were rewarded did learn the maze, and the rats that were rewarded later initially did not learn the maze but then did

Question 11

What is the behaviourist definition of learning?

Answer 11

Long lasting change in the mechanisms of behaviour resulting from practise or experience (this limits the role of cognitive processes)

Question 12

What are the benefits to using animal models to study human learning?

Answer 12

• can observe similarities in behaviour
• we can focus on relevant features and functions
• allows for exploration of side effects
• teaches us the fundamentals of machine learning (ex. computer programming)

Question 13

What is the general process approach?

Answer 13

• all species use the same approach to learn (general laws)
• driven by search for commonalities
• we can therefore discover the general rules of learning by studying any species

Question 14

What constitutes a good animal model?

Answer 14

high construct validity - accurately measure what you say you are measuring
high criterion validity - how well does this predict human behaviour?

Question 15

What is the biggest consideration one has to make when using animal models?

Answer 15

humane and ethical treatment of animals

Question 16

What are the practical advantages to using animal models?

Answer 16

• can control prior experience
• often know full genetic sequence
• animals will not guess the goals of research

Question 17

What are the empirical advantages to using animal models?

Answer 17

• can ask questions about human behaviour that cannot be studied in humans
• can study the neurobiological substrates of learning and memory

Question 18

What are the historical perspectives on the constraints of behaviour?

Answer 18

empiricism: knowledge acquired through experience
nativism: innate ideas

Question 19

Who was the father of empiricism?

Answer 19

John Locke

• tabula rasa
• all knowledge is built from sensory experience

Question 20

Describe the primary rules of association outlined by Hobbes

Answer 20

a) contiguity: if two events are paired together close in time, an association will occur
b) similarity: association will occur if two things are similar
c) contrast: association will occur if two things are different

Question 21

Describe the secondary rules of association outlined by Thomas Brown

Answer 21

a) intensity of sensation/events
b) recency of association
c) frequency of events being paired

Question 22

What was Ebbinghaus’ contribution to the study of learning?

Answer 22

• empirical study of associations using nonsense syllables

Question 23

Who proposed nativism?

Answer 23

Rene Descartes

Question 24

What does dualism state?

Answer 24

two aspects of humans:

1. mind - has innate knowledge
2. body - source of voluntary and involuntary behaviour (reflexes mediated by the pineal gland)
   - voluntary and involuntary behaviour mediated by the reflex

Question 25

Describe Descartes’ reflex

Answer 25

• automatic connection between stimulus and response
• agitates animal spirits which flow through the nerves to the mind to activate the pineal gland; pineal gland then stimulates the muscles to move via animal spirits down through the nerves to activate a reflex

Question 26

What exactly are reflexes?

Answer 26

They are elicited behaviours that are activated in response to a stimulus/stimuli; result of evolution (defence mechanism, survival)

Question 27

What are the 3 types of reflex?

Answer 27

1. simple reflex
2. complex reflex
3. modal action patterns

Question 28

Describe the reflex arc

Answer 28

Made up of sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons

Question 29

Describe the pathway of a simple reflex

Answer 29

sensory neuron > interneuron > motor neuron

• fast
• can sometimes be inhibited

Question 30

What is a Moro reflex?

Answer 30

reaching out when experiencing sensation of falling (ex. baby Sam)

Question 31

What would complex behaviours require?

Answer 31

• coordinated reflexes (ex. breastfeeding)

Question 32

What are modal action patterns (MAPs)?

Answer 32

orderly sequence of reflexive behaviours typical of a particular species or group of related species

ex. mating rituals and defending territories
ex. Egg rolling goose, cat vs. laser
- interspecies similarities
- intraspecies differences

Question 33

How are MAPs elicited?

Answer 33

study done by Tinbergen & Perdeck (1950) - bill pecking feeding pattern of the herring gull
- found that the irrelevant features are: yellow colour of beak, shape of head and noises parent gull made

Question 34

What is a sign stimulus?

Answer 34

the eliciting stimulus (same as releasing stimulus)

Question 35

What is a supernormal stimulus?

Answer 35

amped up stimulus that elicits a more than natural response

Question 36

What are MAPs highly dependent on?

Answer 36

Physiological state

Question 37

How are MAPs related to goal directed behaviour?

Answer 37

• behaviour geared toward obtaining a specific outcome is typically organized into functionally effective sequences

Question 38

What are the two goal directed behaviours?

Answer 38

1. appetitive behaviour: seeking ex. food (variable across individuals)
2. consummatory behaviour: consuming ex. chewing (same across species)

Question 39

What kind of MAPs can we observe in humans?

Answer 39

• few pure MAPs in humans (most behaviour is modified by experience)
• yawning argued as a MAP (but this can be inhibited so perhaps not)