Chapter 1 Anatomy Flashcards
Integrated set of regulated processes that include pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange in the lungs and tissues, transport of gases by blood, assist with regulating blood pH, and contains receptors for the sense of smell
Respiratory System
Respiratory System additional functions
- Filters inspired air
- Produce sounds
- Excrete small amounts of water and heat during exhalation
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveolar air and blood
External respiration
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and body cells
Internal Respiration
Body system that regulates breathing rates
Nervous system
Two parts of the respiratory system
Upper
Lower
Nose, Pharynx, and associated structures
Upper Respiratory System
Larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Lower Respiratory System
Two parts of the respiratory system based on FUNCTION
Conducting zone
Respiratory zone
Consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles that conduct air into the lungs
Conducting Zone
Consists of tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs-the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli
Respiratory zone
Consist of bone and cartilage covered with skin and lined with mucous membrane, it has two openings called external nares or nostrils
External nose
Connects to the throat through two openings called the internal nares
Internal nose
Air circulates and provides resonance, warms and humidifies before going down to the lungs
Paranasal sinuses
Four groups of paranasal sinuses
Frontal
Maxillary
Sphenoid
Ethmoidal
Largest paranasal sinus
Maxillary
Space inside the internal nose, lies below the cranium and above the oral pharynx
Nasal cavity
Ducts that connect to the internal nose
Nasolacrimal ducts
Vertical partition, divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides
Nasal septum
The nasal septum consists of the following structures:
Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
Vomer
Cartilage
Basic functions of the nose
- Filtering, warming, and moistening incoming air
- Detecting olfactory (smell) stimuli
- Modifying the vibrations of speech sounds
What cells line the nasal cavity?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells
Goblet cells
Mucus secreted by what cells, moistens the air and traps dust particles?
Goblet Cells
What moves the dust-laden mucus toward the pharynx, at which point it can be swallowed or spit out
Cilia
Funnel-shaped tube that starts at the internal nares and extends partway down the neck
Pharynx (or throat)
Anterior to cervical vertebrae
Composed of skeletal muscle and lined with mucous membrane
Passageway for air and food
Pharynx
Provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils
Pharynx
- Posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil
- Exchanges air with the nasal cavities and receives mucus-dust packages
- Exchanges small amounts of air with the auditory tubes to equalize pressure
Nasopharynx
Middle part of the pharynx
Oropharynx
Upper part of the pharynx
Nasopharynx
Opens into the mouth and nasopharynx
Two pairs of tonsils (palatine and lingual)
Oropharynx
Connects with both the esophagus and the larynx
Laryngopharynx
Voice box
Larynx
Short tube of cartilage lined by mucous membrane that connects the pharynx with the trachea
It lies in the midline of the neck anterior, C4-C6
Larynx
1) Thyroid cartilage
2) Epiglottis
3) Cricoid cartilage
4) Arytenoid cartilages
5) Vocal cords
Part of the Larynx
Consists of hyaline cartilage, forms the anterior wall of the larynx
“Adam’s Apple”
Thyroid cartilage
Leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium
Epiglottis
The “stem” of the epiglottis is attached to:
The anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone
When anything but air passes into the larynx, what reflex occurs?
Cough reflex
Ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx and is attached to the first tracheal cartilage
Cricoid Cartilage
Part cartilage consisting mostly of hyaline cartilage
a) Located above the cricoid cartilage
b) Attach to the true vocal cords and pharyngeal muscles
c) Function in voice production
Arytenoid cartilage
Larynx vestibular folds
False vocal cords
Holds the breath against pressure in the thoracic cavity when you strain to lift a heavy object
Does not produce sound
False vocal cords (vestibular folds): Upper pair
Produce sounds during speaking and singing
Contain elastic ligaments stretched between pieces of rigid cartilage like the string on a guitar
True vocal cords (vocal folds): Lower pair
What causes vocal cords to become thicker and louder in males?
Male sex hormones
Windpipe, tubular passageway for air that is located anterior to the esophagus
Trachea
Extends from the larynx to the upper part of the fifth thoracic vertebra
Divides into right and left primary bronchi at the level of T-5
Trachea
Trachea mucous membrane is compose of:
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium:
Consisting of ciliated columnar cells, goblet cells, and basal cells
Secondary bronchi
Bronchi entering each lobe, also known as Lobar Bronchi
Bronchi divided further after the secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi or Segmental Bronchi
Does not contain cartilage and are further reduced in size to form smaller branches called terminal bronchioles which are the smallest branches of the bronchial tree
Bronchioles
Cilia in the upper respiratory tract move mucus and trapped particles:
Down toward the pharynx
Cilia in the lower respiratory tract moves mucus and trapped particles:
Up toward the pharynx
How many C-shaped cartilage rings are in the trachea?
16 to 20
The open part of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces what body part?
Esophagus
Smallest branches of the bronchial tree
Terminal bronchioles
Two spongy, cone shaped organs in the thoracic cavity
Lungs
Double-layered serous membrane that encloses and protects each lung
Pleural membrane
Outer layer that is attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity and diaphragm
Parietal pleura
Inner layer that is attached to the lungs
Visceral pleura
Narrow space located between the viscera and parietal pleura which contains a lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes
Pleural cavity
Broad bottom portion of each lung, surface against the diaphragm
Base
Upper end located just above the clavicle extends roughly 4 cm above the first rib into the base of the neck
Apex
An indentation of the left lung where the heart lies
Cardiac notch
How much smaller is the left lung compared to the right lung?
10%
Deep grooves which divides the lung into the lobes
Fissures
What fissures are in the right lung?
Oblique and Horizontal fissures
What fissures are in the left lung?
Oblique only
Each lung lobe contains a lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule and a branch from a terminal bronchiole wrapped in elastic connective tissue
Lobule
Subdivisions of lobules are microscopic branches of terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
What lines the the respiratory bronchioles?
Non-ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium
Subdivisions of respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Two or more alveoli that share a common opening to the alveolar duct
Alveolar sacs
Cup-shaped outpouching of an alveolar sac
Alveoli
Walls of alveoli consist mainly of what type of cell?
Thin alveolar cells (simple squamous epithelial cells)
Main sites of gas exchange
Alveoli
Cells that secrete alveolar fluid which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist
Surfactant cells
A mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins that reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse
Surfactant
The flow of air between the atmosphere and the lungs, occurs due to differences in air pressure
Pulmonary ventilation
What does the diaphragm do during inspiration?
Contracts and becomes flatter after receiving nerve impulses from the phrenic nerves
Contractions of the diaphragm is responsible for what percent of air that enters the lungs?
75%
Factors that can impede descent of the diaphragm and may cause shortness of breath
Advanced pregnancy
Obesity
Confining clothing
Increased size of stomach after eating a large meal
During inhalation, external intercostal muscles contract causing the ribs to move:
Upward and outward
What muscles elevate the sternum during deep labored breathing?
Sternocleidomastoid muscles
What muscles elevate the two uppermost ribs during labored breathing?
Scalene muscles
What muscles elevate the third through fifth ribs during labored breathing?
Pectoralis minor muscles
Exhalation occurs due to what?
Elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs
What prevents alveoli from not completely collapsing during exhalation?
Due to recoil effect and the presence of surfactant
What is a passive process and involves no muscular contractions?
Quiet exhalation
When does exhalation become active?
Forceful breathing (exercising or playing a wind instrument)
What muscles are involved during forceful exhalation?
Internal intercostal
External Oblique
Internal Oblique
Transverse abdominis
Rectus abdominis
Lung expansion causes air molecules within the lungs to occupy a larger volume which causes air pressure inside to:
Decrease
When lung volume decreases, alveolar pressure:
Increases
At rest just before inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs is the same as the pressure of the atmosphere at:
760 mmHg (at sea level)
During inspiration the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract increasing the thoracic cavity size. The volume of the lungs increases, and the pressure inside decreases from 760 mmHg to:
758 mmHg
When the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax, recoil causes lung volume to decrease. Alveolar pressure rises from 758 mmHg to:
762 mmHg
Healthy adults at rest have how many breathes per minute?
12
Amount of air moved from in and out of the lungs
500 mL
The volume of one breath
Tidal volume
Total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute
Minute Ventilation (MV)
What percentage of tidal volume actually reaches the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs?
70% or 350 mL
What percentage of tidal volume does not participate in gas exchange?
Known as dead space.
This includes bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.
30% or 150 mL
Instrument used to measure respiratory rate and the amount of air inhaled and exhaled when breathing.
Spirometer
Inhalation on a spirometer is recorded as:
Upward deflection
Exhalation on a spirometer is recorded as:
Downward deflection
The record produced from a spirometer is called a:
Spirogram
The additional air that is inhaled beyond the normal 500mL tidal volume
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Inspiratory reserve volume in males
3100 mL
Inspiratory Reserve Volume in females
1900 mL
The additional air expired after a normal inhalation
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Expiratory Reserve Volume in males
1200 mL
Expiratory Reserve Volume in females
700 mL
The volume of air that remains even after expiratory reserve is expelled
Residual Volume (RV)
Residual volume in males
1200 mL
Residual Volume in females
1100 mL
The sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Inspiratory capacity in males
3600 mL
Inspiratory capacity in females
2400 mL
The sum of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Functional Residual Capacity in males
2400 mL
Functional Residual Capacity in females
1800 mL
The sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
Vital Capacity (VC)
Vital Capacity in males
4800 mL
Vital Capacity in females
3100 mL
The sum of vital capacity and residual volume
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
Total lung capacity in males
6000 mL
Total Lung Capacity in females
4200 mL
Normal pattern of quiet breathing
Eupnea
An upward and outward movement of the chest
Costal breathing (shallow)
Outward breathing, movement of the diaphragm
Diaphragmatic breathing (Deep)
Provides humans with various expressions of emotion, or may remove a foreign body and facilitate talking and singing
Respirations
A long-drawn deep inhalation followed by a strong exhalation, sends a blast of air through upper respiratory passages. Reflex to expel a foreign body.
Coughing
Spasmodic contraction of muscles of exhalation that forcefully expels air through the nose and usually from an irritation of nasal mucosa
Sneezing
A long-drawn and deep inhalation immediately followed by a shorter but forceful exhalation
Sighing
A deep inhalation through a widely opened mouth, producing an exaggerated depression of the mandible. Exact cause unknown (fatigue, drowsiness or seeing someone else do it)
Yawning
A series of convulsive inhalations followed by a single long exhalation
Sobbing
An inhalation followed by many short convulsive exhalations, vocal cords vibrate, characteristic facial expression
Crying
Same as crying by different facial expressions
Laughing
Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm followed by spasmodic closure of the larynx. Produces a sharp sound of inhalation. Stimulus is usually irritation of the GI tract.
Hiccupping
“P”
Partial Pressure
Sum of partial pressures of the gases
Air pressure
Partial pressure of nitrogen
597.4 mmHg
Partial pressure of oxygen
158.8 mmHg
Partial pressure of water vapor
3.0 mmHg
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide
0.3 mmHg
Partial pressure of “other” gases in the air
0.5 mmHg
Gases diffuse from areas where it’s partial pressure is higher to areas where it’s partial pressure is:
Lower in the body
Pulmonary gas exchange
External respiration
Diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood in the pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction. Occurs only in the lungs.
External Respiration
Partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air at rest
105 mmHg
Partial pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary capillaries
40 mmHg
Blood returning to the heart via the pulmonary veins has a partial pressure of:
100 mmHg
Partial pressure of CO2 in deoxygenated blood
45 mmHg
Partial pressure of CO2 in alveolar air
40 mmHg
The exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic capillaries and tissue throughout the body
Internal Respiration (Systemic Gas Exchange)
Partial pressure of O2 in blood of systemic capillaries is higher (100 mmHg) than in tissue cells (40 mmHg) because:
Cell’s use O2 to produce ATP
Tissue cells constantly produce:
CO2
Partial pressure of CO2 in cells
45 mmHg
Partial pressure of CO2 in capillaries
40 mmHg
Percentage of oxygen in blood plasma
1.5%
Percentage of oxygen bound to hemoglobin in RBC’s
98.5%
Heme in hemoglobin contains how many iron ions?
Each binds a molecule of O2
Four
When blood partial pressure of O2 is lower, hemoglobin:
Releases O2
Hemoglobin binds with large amounts of O2 and is fully saturated when:
Blood partial pressure of oxygen is high
As temperature increases, so does the amount of ____ released from hemoglobin
O2
In an acidic environment, hemoglobin releases more _____.
O2
Carbon dioxide transported in blood in three main forms:
1) Dissolved CO2 (7%)
2) Bound to amino acids (23%)
3) Bicarbonate ions (70%)
The area from which nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory muscles to control respiratory rate. Located in the Pons and Medulla Oblongata.
Respiratory center
Controls the basic rhythm of respiration
Medullary Respiratory Center
Generates nerve impulses for forceful exhalation. Remain inactive during quiet breathing.
Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)
Neurons of this area supply nerve impulses for forceful exhalation
Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)
Active during inhalation and exhalation. Transmit nerve impulses to the DRG in the medulla. Plays a role in both inhalation and exhalation by modifying the rhythm of breathing generated by the VRG as when exercising, speaking, or sleeping.
Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG)
Allows us to hold our breath voluntarily
Cerebral cortex
Allows emotional stimuli to alter respirations, i.e. Laughing or crying
Hypothalamus and limbic system
Chemoreceptors located in the medulla
Central Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors located in the aortic arch and common carotids
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
What levels of partial pressure O2 are chemoreceptors strongly stimulated?
50 mmHg (100 mmHg is normal)
Increases rate and depth of respiration due to anticipation of activity or emotional anxiety
Limbic system stimulation
Increase in rate and depth of respiration due to input from proprioceptors as a result of joint and muscle movement. These proprioceptors stimulate and inspiratory area of the medulla.
Respiration increases even before changes in PCO2, PO2, or H+ occur.
Proprioceptor stimulation of respiration
Prolonged somatic pain _______ respirations
Increases
Visceral pain may ______ respirations
Decrease
Stimulation by stretch receptors in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles, the inspiratory area is inhibited prevents over inflation
The inflation reflex
Aging and the respiratory system causes
Lungs lose elasticity
Alveoli and the chest wall become rigid
By age 70 decreased vital capacity can reach up to:
35%
