chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body

Question 1

Anatomy

Answer 1

is the
science of body structures and the relationships among them.

Question 2

physiology

Answer 2

is the
science of body functions—how the body parts work.

Question 3

six levels of organization

Answer 3

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system,
and organismal levels of the organization

Question 4

Chemical level

Answer 4

-the very basic level

-includes the atom which is the smallest unit of matter that participate in chemical reactions,

Question 5

Cellular level

Answer 5

Molecules combine to form cells, the basic
structural and functional units of an organism that are composed
of chemicals.

Question 6

Tissue level

Answer 6

groups of cells and the materials
surrounding them that work together to perform a particular
function,

4 types - epithelial
connective
muscular
nervous

Question 7

organ level

Answer 7

different types of tissues are
joined together.

structures that are composed of two
or more different types of tissues;

they have specific functions
and usually have recognizable shapes.

Question 8

system level

Answer 8

consists of related organs (paragraphs) with a
common function.

Question 9

organismal level

Answer 9

Different types of tissue joined together

All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total
organism. (a living individual)

Question 10

anabolism

Answer 10

the building up of complex chemical substances
from smaller, simpler components.

(to build)

Question 11

metabolism

Answer 11

is the sum of all chemical processes
that occur in the body (2 phases)

1) catabolism
2) anabolism

Question 12

catabolism

Answer 12

breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components.

Question 13

nerve impulses

Answer 13

electrical signal (action potentials)

Question 14

6 basic life processes

Answer 14

Metabolism
Responsiveness
movement
growth
differentiation
reproduction

When any one of the life processes ceases to occur properly, the
result is death of cells and tissues, which may lead to death of the organism

Question 15

growth

Answer 15

increase in body size that results from an increase
in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or
both.

Question 16

differentiation

Answer 16

is the development of a cell
from an unspecialized to a specialized state.

• Such precursor ( ancestor) cells,
  which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation,
  are known as stem cells.
• through differentiation,
  a single fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an
  embryo, and then into a fetus, an infant, a child, and finally an adult.

Question 17

Reproduction

Answer 17

(1) the formation of
new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement,

(2) the production of a new individual.

Question 18

Homeostasis

Answer 18

is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in
the body’s internal environment

ex maintaining body fluid

EX (the level of glucose in
blood normally stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per
100 milliliters of blood).

Most often, the nervous system and the endocrine system, working together or independently, provide the needed corrective measures.

Question 19

intracellular fluid (ICF)

Answer 19

fluid inside cell

Question 20

extra-cellular fluid (ECF)

Answer 20

fluid outside the cell (differs depending on where it occurs in the body)

ECF within blood vessels is termed blood
plasma, within lymphatic vessels, is called lymph, in and around the
brain and spinal cord it is known as cerebrospinal fluid, in joints it is
referred to as synovial fluid, and the ECF of the eyes is called
aqueous humor and vitreous body
extra- = outside

Question 21

interstitial fluid

Answer 21

The ECF
that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues is known as

Question 22

exchanged between the external environment, internal environment, and body cells in order to maintain homeostasis

Answer 22

oxygen and nutrients enter the plasma. these substances are transported throughout the body by the cardiovascular system. Oxygen and nutrients eventually leave plasma by crossing the walls of blood capillaries and entering interstitial fluid

Blood capillaries are specialized to
allow the transfer of material between plasma and interstitial fluid.

From interstitial fluid, oxygen, and nutrients are then taken up by cells and metabolized for energy

During this process, the cells produce waste
products, which enter again the interstitial fluid and then move across the blood capillary walls into plasma

The cardiovascular system transports these
wastes to the appropriate organs for elimination from the body into the
external environment.

nitrogen-containing wastes- urea and ammonia (eliminated by the urinary system)

Question 23

exchanged between the external environment, internal environment, and body cells in order to maintain homeostasis

Answer 23

oxygen and nutrients enter the plasma. these substances are transported throughout the body by the cardiovascular system. Oxygen and nutrients eventually leave plasma by crossing the walls of blood capillaries and entering interstitial fluid

Blood capillaries are specialized to
allow the transfer of material between plasma and interstitial fluid.

From interstitial fluid, oxygen, and nutrients are then taken up by cells and metabolized for energy

During this process, the cells produce waste
products, which enter again the interstitial fluid and then move across the blood capillary walls into plasma

The cardiovascular system transports these
wastes to the appropriate organs for elimination from the body into the
external environment.

nitrogen-containing wastes- urea, and ammonia (eliminated by the urinary system)

Question 24

endocrine system

Answer 24

glands that secrete messenger molecules called hormones into the
blood.

Question 25

feedback system or feedback loop (3)

Answer 25

is a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on 1) receptor 2) control center 3) effector A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their control center forms a feedback system that can regulate a controlled condition in the body’s internal environment negative feedback positive feedback

Question 26

controlled condition (controlled variable).

Answer 26

Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose level Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus.

Question 27

receptor

Answer 27

is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center. (afferent pathway) afferent pathways - information that flows toward the control center. (nerve impulses or chemical signals).

Question 28

control center

Answer 28

sets the narrow range or set point within which a controlled condition should be maintained evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed. efferent pathway (away from) - output

Question 29

effector

Answer 29

is a body structure that receives an output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition.

Question 30

A negative feedback system

Answer 30

reverses a change in a controlled condition and negates the original stimulus. ex high BP --- Baroreceptors (the receptors), pressure-sensitive nerve cells located in the walls of certain blood vessels, detect the higher pressure, which sends nerve impulses (input) to the brain (control center), which interprets the impulses and responds by sending nerve impulses (output) to the heart and blood vessels (the effectors). blood pressure becomes normal again and homeostasis is restored.

Question 31

positive feedback system

Answer 31

strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. the control center provides commands to an effector which produces a physiological response that ADDS to or REINFORCE the initial change in the controlled condition so the response is different than the negative feedback ex when giving birth first contraction sends input to the control center then the output releases -Oxytocin which causes muscles in the wall of the uterus (effector) to contract even more forcefully. - blood clotting is also an example of a positive feedback system.

Question 32

anatomical position

Answer 32

Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position of reference called the the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward

Question 33

prone

Answer 33

body is lying facedown

Question 34

supine

Answer 34

body is lying faceup

Question 35

the trunk

Answer 35

The trunk consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis.

Question 36

upper limb

Answer 36

arm (portion of the limb from the shoulder to the elbow), orearm (portion of the limb from the elbow to the wrist), wrist, and hand.

Question 37

lower limb

Answer 37

buttock, thigh (portion of the limb from the buttock to the knee), leg (portion of the limb from the knee to the ankle), ankle, and foot

Question 38

groin

Answer 38

the area on the front surface of the body marked by a crease on each side, where the trunk attaches to the thighs.

Question 39

head

Answer 39

cephalic region

Question 40

Antecubital

Answer 40

front of elbow

Question 41

anterior

Answer 41

Nearer to or at the front

Question 42

posterior

Answer 42

Nearer to or at the back

Question 43

superior

Answer 43

toward the upper part of the body

Question 44

inferior

Answer 44

toward the lower part of the body

Question 45

Medial

Answer 45

Nearer to the midline (an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left sides). The ulna is medial to the radius.

Question 46

Lateral

Answer 46

Farther from the midline.

Question 47

Intermediate

Answer 47

Between two structures. The transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons.

Question 48

Ipsilateral

Answer 48

On the same side of the body as another structure The gallbladder and ascending colon are ipsilateral.

Question 49

Contralateral

Answer 49

On the opposite side of the body from another structure The ascending and descending colons are contralateral.

Question 50

Proximal

Answer 50

Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure. The humerus (arm bone) is proximal to the radius

Question 51

Distal

Answer 51

Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk; farther from the origination of a structure. The phalanges (finger bones) are distal to the carpals (wrist bones).

Question 52

Superficial

Answer 52

Toward or on the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the lungs. external

Question 53

DEEP

Answer 53

Away from the surface of the body. The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back. internal)

Question 54

planes

Answer 54

imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts

Question 55

sagittal plane

Answer 55

is a vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into RIGHT and LEFT sides

Question 56

midsagittal plane or median plane.

Answer 56

More specifically, when such a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right and left sides, it is called a

Question 57

parasagittal plane

Answer 57

If the sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into UNEQUAL right and left sides

Question 58

frontal or coronal plane

Answer 58

divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

Question 59

transverse plane / cross-sectional/horizontal plane.

Answer 59

divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower)

Question 60

oblique plane

Answer 60

by contrast, passes through the body or an organ at an oblique angle (any angle other than a 90-degree angle).

Question 61

section

Answer 61

a cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes just described.

Question 62

body cavities

Answer 62

spaces that enclose internal organs. Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from one another

Question 63

what surrounds the brain

Answer 63

Three layers of protective tissue, the meninges, and a shock-absorbing the fluid surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

Question 64

body cavities of the trunk

Answer 64

1) thoracic 2) abdom-inopelvic cavities

Question 65

thoracic cavity

Answer 65

ribs muscles of the chest the sternum (breastbone) thoracic portion of the vertebral column

Question 66

pericardial cavity

Answer 66

a fluid filled space that surrounds the heart

Question 67

pleural cavities

Answer 67

two fluid-filled spaces one around each lung

Question 68

mediastinum

Answer 68

The central part of the thoracic cavity it is an anatomical region It is between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm

Question 69

diaphragm

Answer 69

is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.

Question 70

abdominopelvic cavity

Answer 70

extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis. contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.

Question 71

viscera

Answer 71

Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Question 72

pelvic cavity

Answer 72

The inferior portion contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system

Question 73

visceral pericardium

Answer 73

covers the surface of the heart

Question 74

parietal pericardium

Answer 74

lines the chest wall

Question 75

pericardial cavity

Answer 75

between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium filled with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid

Question 76

peritoneum

Answer 76

is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity Most abdominal organs are surrounded by the peritoneum.

Question 77

visceral peritoneum

Answer 77

covers the abdominal viscera,

Question 78

parietal peritoneum

Answer 78

lines the abdominal wall, covering the inferior surface of the diaphragm

Question 79

peritoneal cavity,

Answer 79

BETWEEN parietal peritoneum AND visceral peritoneum which contains a small amount of lubricating serous fluid.

Question 80

retroperitoneal

Answer 80

ORGANS that are not surrounded by the peritoneum; instead, they are posterior to it. retro- = behind The kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and duodenum of the small intestine, ascending and descending colons of the large intestine, and portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava

Question 81

synovial cavities

Answer 81

which are found in freely movable joints and contain synovial fluid

Question 82

nine abdominopelvic regions

Answer 82

The superior horizontal line, the subcostal line (sub = below; costal = rib), passes across the lowest level of the 10th costal cartilages the inferior horizontal line, the transtubercular line, passes across the superior margins of the iliac crests of the right and left hip bone. Two vertical lines, the left and right midclavicular lines, are drawn through the midpoints of the clavicles (collar bones), just medial to the nipples. The four lines divide the abdominopelvic cavity into a larger middle section and smaller left and right sections. right hypochondriac epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical left lumbar, right inguinal (iliac) hypogastric (pubic) left inguinal (iliac)

Question 83

membrane

Answer 83

is a thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions, or connects structures.

Question 84

serous membrane

Answer 84

slippery, double-layered membrane associated with body cavities that does not open directly to the exterior covers the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also lines the walls of the thorax and abdomen (1) parietal layer, a thin epithelium that lines the walls of the cavities (2) visceral layer, a thin epithelium that covers and adheres to the viscera (organ) within the cavities

Question 85

quadrants

Answer 85

midsagittal line (the median line) and a transverse line (the transumbilical line) is passed through the umbilicus The names of the abdominopelvic quadrants are right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).