Chapter 1 A&P Flashcards
Anatomy
the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
Physiology
the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery
Gross Anatomy
study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
Histology
(microscopic anatomy)—examination of tissues with microscope
Histopathology
microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
Cytology
study of structure and function of cells; fine detail (ultrastructure) may be resolved using an electron microscope
Organism
a single, complete individual
Organ system
group of organs with a unique collective function; for example: circulation, respiration, digestion
Organ
-structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function
-An organ has defined anatomical boundaries; can have organs withing organs
Tissue
similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function
Cell
smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life
Organelle
structure within a cell that carry out a function
Molecule
-particle composed of two or more atoms
-Largest molecules (proteins, fats, DNA) called macromolecules
Atom
smallest particle with unique chemical identity
Molecular Level
enzymes break food molecules into smaller units
Cellular Level
cells produce enzymes and take up nutrients derived from food
Tissue Level
groups of cells form layers that mediate protection, absorption, contraction
Organ Level
regulation of absorption, movement, etc. via interaction with multiple systems (endocrine, nervous, circulatory, etc).
Molecular structural and functional complexity
-Higher levels of structure allow for unique complex functions
-Isolated atoms such as carbon and hydrogen do not have biological functions
-Atoms are the building blocks of molecules
-The bond between carbon and hydrogen stores energy that can be used by cells
-Molecules containing multiple bonds between atoms such as carbon and hydrogen provide complex functions
-Energy and building block storage (example: food)
-Cell and tissue structure (example: cell membranes)
-“Molecular machines” (example receptors and enzymes)
-Information storage (example: genes comprised of DNA)
Integumentary system
-Forms the external body covering
-Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
-Protects deep tissues from injury
-Synthesizes vitamin D
Skeletal system
-Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments
-Protects and supports body organs
-Provides the framework for muscles
-Site of blood cell formation
-Stores minerals
Muscular system
-Composed of muscles and tendons
-Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
-Maintains posture
-Produces heat
Nervous System
-Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
-Is the fast-acting control system of the body
-Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands
Cardiovascular (circulatory) System
-Composed of the heart and blood vessels
-The heart pumps blood
-The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body
Lymphatic (lymphoid) system
-Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
-Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
-Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
-Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Respiratory system
-Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
-Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
Digestive system
-Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver
-Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood
-Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
-Urinary (excretory) system
-Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
-Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
-Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood
Male Reproductive System
Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens
Main function is the production of offspring
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract
Female Reproductive System
-Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
-Main function is the production of offspring
-Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
-Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
-Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
Endocrine system
-Composed of glands that secrete hormones
-Hormones are molecules that carry signals through the body via blood and interstitial fluids
-Regulates growth, reproduction, and metabolism
Organization
-living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things
-Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments must exist
-Plasma membranes separate cells
-Skin separates organism from environment
Cellular composition
living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
Metabolism
the sum of internal chemical change
-Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)
Digestion
-breakdown of organic macromolecules
-Occurs inside and outside of cells
-Digestion of ingested foodstuffs is followed by absorption of simple molecules (nutrients) into blood
Responsiveness
(excitability)—ability to sense and react to changes in environment (stimuli)
Movement
-movement of entire organism or of substances within the organism
-Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level
Homeostasis
-maintaining relatively stable internal conditions
Development
-change in form or function over time
-Humans are multicellular
-Growth—increase in size; occurs through cell division
-Differentiation—transformation of unspecialized cells into cells with a committed task
Reproduction
— biological unit produce copies of themselves; pass genes to offspring
-At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair
-At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring
Evolution
-genetic change from generation to generation; occurs due to mutations (change in DNA structure)
-Observe evolution in population as a whole; a single organism does not evolve over the course of its life
Nutrients
-chemical substances obtained from the environment
-used to build complex structures
-broken down for energy
-Oxygen
needed for energy producing metabolic reactions
Water
provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions
Normal body temperature
necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
Homeostasis
-Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world
-Homeostasis is a balance between changes in the body’s condition and internal control mechanisms that oppose those changes
-The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
Examples of physiologic components under homeostatic control:
- Body temperature
- Concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide
- pH of the internal environment
- Concentration of nutrients and waste products
- Concentration of salt and other electrolytes
- Volume and pressure of extracellular fluid
- Normal body temperature
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Components of homeostatic control of environmental variables:
Receptor
-monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)
-“incoming” info communicated along afferent pathways
Control center
-determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
-“outgoing” info communicated along efferent pathways
Effector
-provides the means to respond to the stimulus
-Most homeostatic controls are based on negative feedback
Negative Feedback
-In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off the original stimulus
Examples: Regulation of blood glucose levels or body temperature
Negative feedback in a metabolic pathway
-The end product of a biosynthetic pathway may be a signal to turn off the pathway
Positive Feedback
-In positive feedback systems, the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
-Example: Regulation of blood clotting
-Example: Labor Induction
Homeostatic Imbalance
-Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium
-Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms by extreme environmental conditions or disease leads to impairment of bodily functions.
Anatomical Language
-Descriptions of anatomical orientation, region, and structure
-anterior cruciate ligament, posterior cruciate ligament
-biceps brachii, brachioradialus, biceps femoral
-Like any language, has some tricky quirks
-One term-two meanings, depending on context: two legged vs. four-legged: dorsal and ventral
-Two terms one meaning: superficial and external
-Similar sounding terms, different meanings: coxa and coccyx
Anatomical Position
-Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body
Regional Terms: Anterior & Posterior View
-Axial – head, neck, and trunk
-Appendicular – appendages or limbs
-Specific regional terminology
Body Planes
-Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts
-Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the midline
-Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
-Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts
-Oblique section – cuts made diagonally
Body Cavities
-Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
-Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the brain
-Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column and encases the spinal cord
Ventral cavity
houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic
Thoracic cavity subdivisions
-Pleural cavities – each houses a lung
-Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity, and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
-Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart
Abdominopelvic
-is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the diaphragm
-It is composed of two subdivisions
-Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
-Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
