Chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is Psychology?
A
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
2
Q
What are the four basic goals of psycholgy?
A
1) Describe, 2) Predict, 3) Explain, and 4) Control or Influence
3
Q
What topics did Aristotle write about?
A
sleep, dreams, the senses, and memory
4
Q
Who proposed the doctrine of “interactive dualism”?
A
French philosopher Rene Descartes
5
Q
What is Interactive Dualism?
A
Proposed by Rene Descartes, interactive dualism proposes that the mind and body are separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other conscious experiences.
6
Q
What is physiology?
A
Physiology is a branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of living organisms, including humans. Advances in physiology helped psychology to be seen as a legitimate science in its own right.
7
Q
Who is known as “The Founder of Psychology”?
A
Wilhelm Wundt, a German psychologist
8
Q
What are some landmarks of Wilhelm Wundt’s career?
A
He used experimental methods to study fundamental psychological processes.
He was one of the first to connect psychology and physiology, in his text “Principles of Physiological Psychology” in 1874.
Opened the first psychological research laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879.
9
Q
What was Wundt’s definition of psychology?
A
The study of consciousness.
10
Q
Who was the psychologist who developed “structuralism”?
A
Edward B. Tichener, an English student of Wundt’s. He taught psychology at Cornell University.
11
Q
What is structuralism?
A
The psychological approach that every experience can be broken down into elemental structures, or component parts of sensations and feelings.
12
Q
What is a stimulus?
A
Anything perceptible to the senses, such as a sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste
13
Q
What practice did Tichener train his subjects in?
A
Introspection
14
Q
What is Introspection?
A
When one views an object or stimulus of any kind, and uses it to reconstruct their thoughts and feelings after viewing it, to create a full description of their conscious experience.
15
Q
What is one of the trademarks of Tichener’s school of thought?
A
It was one of the first to be developed, and also one of the first to disappear, fizzling out shortly after his death in 1927.
16
Q
What was the main problem with structuralism as a school of thought?
A
Structuralism relied too heavily on introspection.
17
Q
What are the main problems with introspection?
A
It cannot be used effectively to study children or animals; difficult topics such as learning, mental, or developmental disorders, personality disorders cannot be investigated using introspection; and lastly, introspection is an unreliable form of investigation, because the findings are applicable only to each individual, and not to the masses.
18
Q
What was the psychologist who developed “functionalism”?
A
William James, an American psychologist who taught at Harvard. He was an admirer of Wundt’s, but was mostly influenced by Charles Darwin
19
Q
What is functionalism?
A
Functionalism stressed the importance of studying adaptation to environmental changes, and how behavior functions to allow people and animals adapt to their environments.
20
Q
Who wrote the book “Principles of Psychology”?
A
William James, in 1980
21
Q
Explain some differences between functionalism and structuralism.
A
Functionalists directly observed humans and animals in natural settings, while structuralists relied mostly on introspection and the subject’s personal recollections of their own experiences. Both agreed that psychology should focus on the study of conscious experiences, but functionalists believed they should study more than consciousness at any given moment…they should study consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental activity that shifts and changes.
22
Q
What are the “twin themes” of functionalism?
A
1) The importance of the adaptive role of behavior, and 2) the application of psychology to enhance human behavior.
23
Q
Who was the first woman to receive her PhD in psychology?
A
Margaret Floy Washburn. She was Tichener’s first female doctoral student at Cornell University. Published a widely respected text called “The Animal Mind” in 1908.
24
Q
Who is the most famous MALE student of William James?
A
G. Stanley Hall. He received the first PhD in psychology in the USA, and also founded the first psychology research laboratory in the US at Johns Hopkins University. Began publishing the American Journal of Psychology, and founded the APA - American Psychological Association in 1892.
25
Who was the most famous FEMALE student of William James?
Mary Whiton Calkins. Studied under James at Harvard, and although she completed all the requirements for a PhD, she was not granted one due to being a woman in the 1890s. She taught psychology at a woman college - Wellesley College, and established a psychology laboratory there. 1st woman to be elected president of the ASA in 1905.
26
Who is Francis C. Sumner?
Another of James' students, Sumner went to Clark University, and in 1920 was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology.
27
Who is Kenneth Bancroft Clark?
One of Francis C. Sumner's students, his research on the negative effects of discrimination was hugely influential in the Supreme Court's decision in 1954 to end segregation in schools. Became the first African American president of the APA in 1970.
28
Who founded the principle of Psychoanalysis?
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician. He was a neurologist, not a psychologist, and developed his theories through observation of his patients as well as years of self analysis.
29
What is Psychoanalysis?
Freud's school of thought, which emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. The belief that human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts that were almost always aggressive or sexual in nature, and childhood or past experiences being critical in the shaping of adult personality and behavior.
30
What is Behaviorism?
A school of thought championed in the early 1900s by the likes of Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner, behaviorism contended that psychology should focus its research on strictly OVERT behavior, observable behavior that could be measured and verified. Behaviorists for the most part studied animal behavior in controlled laboratory environments.
31
What are some differences between behaviorism and structuralism, functionalism, and psychoanalysis?
Structuralism, functionalism, and psychoanalysis focused on the subconscious and consciousness in general, while behaviorism rejected the emphasis on consciousness and focused on overt behaviors that could be observed, verified, and documented.
32
Who was Ivan Pavlov?
A Russian psychologist who developed behaviorism through his work with dogs, demonstrating the correlation between external stimuli and automatic behavior (ringing of the bell and the meat powder experiment).
33
Who was John B. Watson?
An American psychologist who subscribed to Pavlov's ideas on behaviorism. He wrote a book in 1924 called "Behaviorism". He believed that psychologists ought to focus on behaviorism in order to learn how behavior is acquired and modified in response to the external environment.
34
Who was B.E. Skinner?
American psychologist who believed, like Watson and Pavlov, that psychology should be restricted to studying outward behavior that could be verified. Skinner used reinforcement and punishment to shape the behavior of pigeons and rats.
35
What is humanistic psychology?
Emerging in the 1950s, humanistic psychology emphasized each person's unique potential for psychological growth and redirection. In contrast to behaviorism, emphasis was on each persons conscious experiences, and how important free will, self-determination, and choice are for human behavior.
36
Who was the "founder" of humanistic psychology?
American psychologist Carl Rogers. Developed in the 1950s, Rogers developed humanistic psychology mainly through his interactions with his clients as a practicing psychotherapist.
37
Who is Abraham Maslow?
An advocate of humanistic psychology.
38
How do modern day psychologists identify themselves?
According to 1) the perspective they emphasize in investigating psychological topics, and 2) the specialty area they have been trained in and practice.
39
In brief, what are the main 8 psychological perspectives in contemporary psychology?
Biological perspective, psychodynamic perspective, behavioral perspective, humanistic perspective, positive psychology perspective, cognitive perspective, cross-cultural perspective, and evolutionary perspective.
40
Briefly explain the Biological Perspective of psychology:
Emphasizes studying the PHYSICAL bases of human and animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics. Neuroscience (study of the nervous system esp the brain) grew out of the biological perspective.
41
Briefly explain the Psychodynamic Perspective of psychology:
Emphasizes the importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships, believing that understanding those can explain the underlying dynamics of behavior and help to treat people with psychological problems.
42
Briefly explain the Behavioral Perspective of psychology:
Emphasize the study of how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental causes, like Watson and Skinner beloved. Many psychologists who work in mental health emphasize behavioral perspective in explaining and treating disorders.
43
Briefly explain the Humanistic Perspective of psychology:
Influenced by Rogers and Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the motivation of people to grow, and influence of personal relationships on a persons self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction to reach one's potential. This perspective, as well as behavioral perspective, is emphasized among professionals in the mental health field.
44
Briefly explain the Positive Psychology Perspective:
Born out of the humanistic perspective, the field of positive psychology focuses on the study of positive emotions and psychological states, and how those contribute to the overall well-being or success of an individual. Focuses on developing therapeutic techniques that increase personal well-being, rather than simply alleviating the symptoms of psychological disorders.
45
Briefly explain the Cognitive Perspective of psychology:
Developed in the 1960s, and referred to as the "Cognitive Revolution", this movement was a break from the traditional behavioralism movement. Focused on the Importance of mental processes in how people think and remember information, solve problems, think, learn. The introduction of computers in the 1950s helped grow this school of thought, as they helped psychologists understand the human mind from a new angle.
46
Briefly explain the Cross-Cultural Perspective of psychology :
The study of how different cultural factors influence pattens of behavior.
47
What is Ethnocentrism?
The tenancy to use your own culture as the standard. To judge all other cultures based on your own culture's "norms", or unwritten rules for behavior. Extreme ethnocentrism can lead to what we call racism, or extreme intolerance towards other cultures.
48
What does it mean for a culture to be "individualistic"?
Some examples of individualistic cultures are the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe. Individualistic cultures emphasize the individual over the masses, and the needs and goals of the individual over the need and goals of the country or group as a whole. P
49
What does it mean for a culture to be "collectivistic"?
Some examples of collectivistic cultures are the cultures of Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central/South America. Collectivistic cultures emphasize the needs and goals of the group over those of the individual. Social behavior is more heavily influenced by cultural norms and social context than individual preferences and attitudes. In these cultures, "self" is seen as interdependent with others, and identity is wrapped up as part of a larger group.
50
What is social loafing?
Established during a psychological finding during the 1970s, social loafing was seen in individualistic cultures; people exerted more effort on a task when working alone than when working with a group.
51
What is social striving?
Established during a psychological finding during the 1970s, social striving was seen in collectivistic cultures; people exerted more effort on a task when working as part of a group than when working solo.
52
Briefly explain the Evolutionary Perspective in psychology:
Influenced by Charles Darwin, this perspective emphasizes the application of evolutionary principles, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena.
53
What are 10 of the major areas of specialty within Psychology?
1) educational psychology, 2) counseling psychology, 3) clinical psychology, 4) health psychology, 5) social psychology, 6) personality psychology, 7) biological psychology, 8) cognitive psychology, 9) experimental psychology, 10) applied psychology.
54
What is psychiatry?
A medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders. A psychiatrist has a medical degree, can prescribe medication, can hospitalize people.
55
What is the scientific method?
A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
56
How does the scientific rule "all events are lawful" apply to psychology?
Psychologists assume, based on this scientific rule, that behavior and mental processes follow consistent patterns.
57
How does the scientific rule "all events are explainable" apply to psychology?
Psychologists assume, based on this scientific rule, that behavior and mental processes have a cause (or causes) that can be understood through careful systematic study.
58
What are a few traits of a good psychologist, when they are conducting research?
They are open-minded, willing to consider new or alternative ideas. They have a healthy sense of skepticism, and carefully evaluate new knowledge, especially when it is contradictory to existing knowledge.
59
What is empirical evidence?
Evidence that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.
60
What are the four basic steps in the scientific method?
1) FORMULATE a specific question that can be tested. 2) DESIGN a study to collect relevant data. 3) ANALYZE the data to arrive at a conclusion. 4) REPORT the results.
61
What is a hypothesis?
A specific prediction that can be empirically tested.
62
What is a variable?
A factor that can vary, or change. A variable must be capable of being observed, measured, and verified. Defining the variable is a crucial step in making a hypothesis and conducting research.
63
What is an operational definiton?
An operational definiton defines the variable in very specific terms as to how it will be measured, manipulated, or changed.
64
Define "descriptive research":
Descriptive research answers the "who, what, where, and when" kinds of questions about behavior. It includes strategies for observing and describing behavior, identifying the factors that seem to be associated with a particular phenomenon .
65
Define "experimental research":
Experimental research is used to show that one variable causes change in a second variable. The researcher will deliberately change on factor, then measures how that change effects the second factor.
66
What is statistics?
A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data.
67
What does it mean when research findings are "statistically significant"?
This means that the results are not likely to have occurred by chance.
68
What is the difference between research findings being statistically significant and being practically significant?
Reference the study of comparing GPA and time spent on FB by college students in 2012. The findings were statistically significant - students who spent less time on FB had a higher GPA - but the findings were not practically significant, because the percentages of the study findings were too small to have large practical significance.
69
What is meta-analysis?
Meta-analysis involves pooling the results of several studies into a single analysis; this is useful when a particular issue has generated a large number of studies with inconsistent results.
70
What does it mean to "replicate"?
To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original finings.
71
What is a theory?
As research findings accumulate, theories develop. A theory is a tentative explanation that tries to account for diverse findings on the same topic.
72
What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a specific question or prediction to be tested, and a theory integrates and summarizes various research findings on a particular topic. A good theory often results in more hypotheses and predictions being generated for further testing.
73
What is Pseudo-science?
A theory, method, or practice that promotes claims in ways that appear to be scientific and plausible even though supporting claims or empirical evidence are lacking. One example would be astrological signs.
74
What is confirmation bias?
The tenancy to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring evidence that might contradict the belief.
75
What is descriptive research?
Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship between behaviors and events.
76
What is Naturalistic Observation?
The systematic recording and observation of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting. Used in order to detect behavior that might not occur in the unnatural setting of a laboratory or more controlled environment.
77
What is a case study?
An intensive study of an individual or a small group of individuals.
78
What is a survey?
When people respond to a structured set of questions about their observations, experiences, or attitudes.
79
What a group called that is a small segment of the group or population?
A sample
80
What is a representative sample?
A sample group that closely resembles the larger group on relevant characteristics such as sex, age, race, marital status, etc.
81
What is random selection?
Random selection means that every member of the larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample.
82
What is a correlational study?
This kind of study examines how strongly two variables are associated with each other.
83
What is a correlation coefficient?
A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the correlation between two variables.
84
What is positive correlation?
A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction - or increasing / decreasing together.
85
What is negative correlation?
A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions - or one increasing as the other decreases.
86
What is the most reliable way to demonstrate a cause and effect relationship ?
Experimental research, which is when one purposefully manipulates one factor thought to produce change in another factor.
87
What is an independent variable?
The factor in an experiment that is purposefully manipulated - also called the treatment variable.
88
What is a dependent variable?
The factor in an experiment that is thought to be influenced by the change in the independent variable, and is therefore observed and measured for change. Also called the Outcome variable.
89
What is a confounding variable?
A factor other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of the experiment. Also called an extraneous variable.
90
What is an experimental group?
In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable.
91
What is the control group?
In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, EXCEPT for the independent variable.
92
What is the testing effect?
The finding that repeated testing produces better retention than studying the same information for the same amount of time.
93
What is the "double-blind" technique?
An experimental control where neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of the group of condition to which the participants have been assigned.
94
What are demand characteristics?
In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicates the kind of response they are looking for. While seemingly small, demand characteristics can dramatically effect the outcome of an experiment.
95
What is the placebo effect?
Any chance attributed to a person's beliefs and expectations, rather than an actual drug, treatment, or procedure.
96
What is a natural experiment?
Where researchers observer and measure the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants.
97
What steps should be followed when establishing the validity of a claim?
1) Identify the claim, 2) Evaluate the evidence, 3) Consider alternative explanations, and 4) Consider the source of the research or claim
98
What does PET stand for?
Positon Emission Tomography
99
What does MRI stand for?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
100
What does fMRI stand for?
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
101
What is comparative psychology?
The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species.
102
List the 5 key provisions in the APA ethical principles:
1) Consent must be informed and voluntary.
2) If a student is required to participate in a research study for class credit, they must aways be given the option to get credit another way.
3) Psychologists can only use deceptive techniques when there are no other feasible alternatives, OR when the potential findings justify the use of deception because of their scientific/educational/social application.
4) There must be strict confidentiality of the study participants.
5) All participants must be fully informed going into the study, and offered the chance to debrief following the study.
103
What are the top 6, research tested methods for studying?
1) Focus your attention! Don't try and multitask.
2) Engage your mind, and be an active reader. Highlight only the key points.
3) Take notes by hand, not on the laptop
4) Practice retrieval: the testing effect. Repeated testing gives better results than repeated reading.
5) Use flashcards and practice tests correctly; don't set aside the information you know well, and only quiz yourself on the remaining information that is not well know. Keep it all together and test repeatedly on the complete information.
6) Space out study time. Don't cram, but rather have set times of focused study.
