Chapter 1 Flashcards
Environmental value system (EVS)
Is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual or group of people perceive and evaluate environmental issues. This will be influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political context.
influential individual
influential individual people who are used in media publications to raise issues and start debates (e.g. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring)
independent pressure groups
use awareness campaigns to affect a change (e.g. WWF Saving Tigers). They influence the public who then influence government and corporate business organisations. These groups are called non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
corporate businesses
involved since they are supplying consumer demand and in doing so using resources and creating environmental impact
governments
make policy decisions including environmental ones and apply legislation to manage the country. They also work with other governments to consider international agreements
intergovernmental bodies (e.g. United Nations)
holding Earth Summits to bring together governments, NGOs, and corporations to consider global, environmental, and world development issues
Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (10,000 years ago)
Humans started to become farmers instead of nomadic hunter-gatherers, population rises, resources were managed sustainably
Industrial Revolution (early 1800s)
population growth, resource usage escalated, burning of large amounts of fuel, mining, land cleared and waterways polluted, cities become crowded and smoky, urbanisation
Green Revolution (1940s to 1960s)
mechanised agriculture and boosted food production, burning of massive amounts of fossil fuels (oil), technology applied to agriculture, new crop varieties, fertiliser and pesticide use rose sharply, resource use and waste production rose
Modern environmental movement (1960s onwards)
global impacts (e.g. deforestation and pollution), new breed of environmentalists, Greenpeace founded in 1971, Rachel Carson Silent Spring, environmental movement became more public and gained momentum
Environmentalism today
more research on loss of biodiversity and climate change, more action to protect the environment, encourage sustainability, increased tension in between technocentrists and ecocentrists due to the discovery of fracking (process used to release shale gas)
Bhopal Disaster (1984)
plant released 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, immediately killing nearly 3,000 people and ultimately causing at least 15,000-22,000 total deaths. Considered to be the world’s worst industrial disaster
Chernobyl Disaster (1986)
worst nuclear disaster that ever occurred . Explosion at the nuclear power plant near Kiev, Ukraine. Level 7 event (the highest)
Fukushima Daiichi (2011)
earthquake set off a tsunami which caused damage resulting in the meltdown of 3 reactors in the nuclear power plant
ecocentric world view
puts ecology and nature as central to humanity, emphasises a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies. Life-centred, respects the rights of nature
deep ecologists
extreme ecocentrists, put more value on nature than humanity. believe in biorights (all species and ecosystems have an inherent value and humans have no right to interfere with this).
anthropocentric world view
believes humans must sustainably manage the global system (through the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legislation). Human-centred, nature is there to benefit mankind but humans aren’t dependant on it.
technocentric world
elieves that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems
environmental managers
technocentrists, see earth as ‘a garden that needs tending’. We have an ethical duty to protect and nurture the earth
cornucopians
extreme technocentrists, see the world as having infinite resources to benefit humanity
biocentric
see all life as having an inherent value. We should not cause the premature extinction of any other species, which is what animal rights activists believe.
System
set of inter-related parts working together to make a complex whole
Open system
exchanged matter and energy with its surroundings
Transfers
Occur when energy or matter flows and changes location but does not change its state
Transformation
Occur when energy or matter flows and changes its state- a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in energy
Closed system
exchanges energy but not matter with its environment
Isolated system
exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment.
Types of models
physical, software, mathematical equations and data flow models
Strengths of models
- easier to work with than complex reality
- can be used to predict the effect of a change of input
- can be applied to other similar situations
- help us seen patterns
Weaknesses of models
- accuracy is lost because the model is simplified
- if our assumptions are wrong, the model will be wrong
- predictions may be inaccurate
Model
a simplified version of the real thing. Used to help understand how a system works and predicts what happens when something changes
First law of thermodynamics
states that energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed
Second law of theromodynamics
states that energy is transformed through energy transfers
entropy
a measure of the amount of disorder in a system
entropy examples
tidy room= low entropy
untidy room= high entropy
Efficiency
as the useful of energy, the work or output produced by a process divided by the amount of energy consumed being the input to the process
efficiency equation
Efficiency= work or energy produced/energy consumed
Efficiency=useful output/ input
Negative feedback loop
stabilizing and occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the same process in such a way to reduce change- it counteracts deviation
Positive feedback loop
(destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system towards a tupping point where a new equilibrium is adopted
steady-state equilibrium
A characteristic of open systems where there are are continuous inputs and output of energy and matter but the system as a whole remains in a more-or-less constant state
steady-state equilibrium examples
- if a water tank fills at the same rate that it empties then there is no net change but the water flows in and out
- constant body temperature, we sweat to cool ourselves and shiver to warm up
static equilibrium
There is no change over time
stable equilibrium
The system tends to return to the same equilibrium after a disturbance
Unstable equilibrium
The system returns to a new equilibrium after disturbance
feedback loop
when information that starts a reaction in turn may input more information which may start another reaction
negative feedback examples
- body temperature rises above 37c, sweat to cool down, attempts to lose heat
- global temperature rising, ice caps melt, more water in the atmosphere means more clouds, more solar radiation is reflected by the clouds, global temperatures fall
Postive feedback examples
- when your body temperature is cooling below 37c, you start to shiver to raise your core body temp. If this fails, your metabolic processes slow. Unless you are rescued, you die of hypothermia
- global temperatures rise, ice caps melt, albedo reduces as more dark soil is exposed, temperatures rise
albedo
reflecting ability of a surface
ecological tipping point
Is reached when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state in which there are significant changes to its biodiversity and the services it provides
ecological tipping point characteristics
Involving positive feedback, e.g. deforestation reduced regional rainfall which increases fire risk which causes forest dieback
changes are long-lasting, hard to reverse, and there is a significant time lag between the pressure driving the change and the appearance of impact
resilience
measures how it responds to a disturbance
the more resilient a system is, the more it can deal with a disturbance
gives an ecosystem the ability to return to its original state
ecological tipping point examples
- extinction of a keystone species (e.g. elephants from a savanna ecosystem can transform it to a new state which cannot be reversed)
- coral reef death, if ocean acidity levels rise enough, the reef coral dies and cannot regenerate
- lake eutrophication, if too many nutrients are added, then plants grow excessively, light is blocked, oxygen levels fall, and animals die
Sustainability
The use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use
Sustainable Development
‘Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’
Sustainability Indicators
Air quality, environmental vulnerability, water poverty, US$ GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita, life expectancy, gender parity
can measure on scales from local to global (the smaller, the more accurate, but you also want the bigger picture)
Why do we continue to be unsustainable if we know what we are doing wrong?
Inertia: when changing what we do seems too difficult
tragedy of the commons
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
A research program funded by the UN that focuses on how ecosystems have changed over the last decades and predicts changes that will happen
report said that natural resources are being used in ways that degrade them (unsustainable in the long term!)
tragedy of the commons
When many individuals act in their own self-interest to harvest a resource but destroy the long-term future of that resource so there is none for anyone
natural capital
Is a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goods and services
natural capital key ideas/examples
Forest (natural capital) produces timber (natural income)
natural capital also provides services, for example erosion control, water management, recycling waste
natural capital is the goods and services that the ENVIRONMENT provides humans with in order to provide natural income
environmental impact assessment (EIA)
A report prepared before a development project to provide a documented way of examining environmental impacts that can be used as evidence in the decision-making process of any new development
weighs up general advantages and disadvantages of a development
environmental impact assessment key ideas
Necessary to state how the environment (abiotic/biotic) will change if a development scheme were ahead
looks at what an environment is like now and what it will be like
environmental impact assessment - how it’s done
Identifying impacts (scoping), predicting the scale of potential impacts, limiting the effect of impacts to acceptable limits (mitigation)
always a non-technical summary of the EIA so the general public can understand
weaknesses of environmental impact assessments
Different countries have different standards for EIAs which makes it hard to compare them
hard to determine where the boundaries of the investigation should be
difficult to consider all the indirect impacts of a development (some may be missed)
Ecological Footprint
The theoretical measurement to see how many land and water it needs to produce the amount a population consumer and to absorb its waste under prevailing technologies
Ecological Footprint Key Ideas
Estimates the demands that human populations place on the environment
when the EF is greater than the area available provided, then it is UNSUSTAINABLE as the population exceeds the carrying capacity
6 areas of an ecological footprint
Carbon (amount of forest land that could isolate CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels)
cropland (amount of cropland used to grow crops for food and fibre for human consumption as well as for animal feed, oil crops and rubber)
grazing land (amount used to raise livestock)
forest (amount required to supply timber products, pulp and fuel wood)
built-up land (amount of land covered by human infrastructure - transportation, housing, industrial structures and reservoirs for hydropower)
fishing grounds (calculated from estimated primary production required to support the fish/seafood caught, based on catch data for marine and freshwater species)
Pollution
The addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human activity, at a rate greater than at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms within it
Pollutants
Released by human activities, may be:
matter (gases, liquids, solids) which can be organic or inorganic
energy (sound, light, heat)
living organisms (invasive species or biological agents)
Primary Pollutants
Active on emission (eg carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels)
Secondary pollutants
Formed by primary pollutants undergoing physical or chemical changes (eg sulphuric acid forms when sulphur trioxide reacts with water)
Why are we polluting?
Economic development -> higher standard of living than before -> pollution increase
Source of pollutants - combustion of fossil fuels
Carbon dioxide - greenhouse gas, climate change
sulphur dioxide - acid deposition, tree and fish death, respiratory disease in humans
nitrogen oxides - respiratory infections, eye irritation, smog
photochemical smog - secondary pollutants, damage to plants, same as nitrogen oxides effects
carbon monoxide - can lead to death by suffocation
Source of pollutants - domestic waste
Organic waste (food and sewage) - eutrophication, waterborne diseases
waste paper, plastics - fills up landfill sites
glass, tins/cans - fills up landfill sites despite being recyclable
Source of pollutants - industrial waste
Heavy metals, fluorides - poisoning
heat - reduces solubility of gases in water (less oxygen, organisms die)
lead - disabilities in children
acids - corrosive
Source of pollutants - agricultural waste
Nitrates - eutrophication
pesticides - accumulate up food chains
Non-point source (NPS) pollution
Release of pollutants from numerous, widely dispersed origins (eg gases from exhausts of vehicles)
Many sources, virtually impossible to detect where it’s coming from
Non-point source (NPS) pollution examples
Rainwater collects nitrates and phosphates (in fertilizer) which then travels many kilometres until deposited into a lake or river - causes eutrophication. It is impossible to tell which farmer used excess fertilizer
Air pollution can be blown hundreds of kilometres
Chemicals released from open chimneys mix with those from others
Point source (PS) pollution
Release of pollutants from a single, clearly identifiable site, for example a factory chimney or the waste disposal pipe of a sewage works into a river
Easier to see who is polluting - a factory or house
Usually easier to manage as it can be found more easily
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
Often manufactured as pesticides in the past
Resistant to breaking down, remain active in the environment for a long time
Bioaccumulate in animal and human tissues and biomagnify in food chains
Persistent organic pollutant examples
DDT, dieldrin, chlordane, aldrin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), some solvents
PCB - causes cancer, disrupts hormone functions, found everywhere in water and animal tissues, because they are so persistent (even found in Arctic Circle)
persistent organic pollutant (POP) properties
Properties: high molecular weight, not very soluble in water, highly soluble in fats and lipids (can pass through cell membranes), halogenated molecules (often with chlorine)
Biodegradable pollutants
Do not persist in the environment and break down quickly
May be broken down by decomposer organisms or physical processes (eg light or heat)
Biodegradable pollutants examples
Soap, domestic sewage, degradable plastic bags made of starch
Common herbicide: glyphosate, farmers use to kill weeds
Acute pollution
When large amounts of a pollutant are released, causing a lot of harm
eg chemical aluminium sulphate tipped into a water treatment works in Cornwall - many drank the poisoned water
Chronic pollution
Results from the long-term release of a pollutant but in small amounts
It is serious because it often goes undetected for a long time, it is usually more difficult to clean up, and it spreads quickly
Air pollution is chronic, causing respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema) Beijing is an example of poor air quality
Direct measurements of air pollution
Acidity of rainwater, amount of gas in the atmosphere, amount of particles emitted by a diesel engine, amount of lead in the atmosphere
Direct measurements of water or soil pollution
Testing for nitrates and phosphates, amount of organic matter or bacteria, heavy metal concentrations
Indirect measurements of pollution
Measuring abiotic factors that change as a result of the pollutant (eg oxygen content of water), recording the presence or absence of indicator species - species that are only found if the conditions are either polluted or unpolluted
e.g. rat-tailed maggot in water (polluted!) or leafy lichens on trees (unpolluted!)
Pollution management strategies
Changing the human activity which produces it, regulating or preventing the release of the pollutant, working to clean up or restore damaged ecosystems
Changing human activity that leads to pollution
Promote alternative technologies, lifestyles and values
Campaigns, education, community groups, governmental legislation, economic incentives/disincentives
Regulating or preventing the release of the pollutant
Legislating and regulating standards of emission
developing/applying technologies for extracting pollutant from emissions
Clean up and restoration of damaged systems
Extracting and removing pollutant from ecosystem replanting/restocking lost or depleted populations and communities
CASE STUDY: DDT and malarial mosquitoes
1970, WHO bans use of DDT
malaria kills 2.7 million people a year, mostly children under the age of 5, infects 300-500 million a year
DDT effective insecticide against the malarial mosquito
banned, but not banned in areas of the world where malaria is endemic
used by spraying walls and backs of furniture, to kill and repel mosquitos that may carry the parasite
