Chapter 1-4 Review Questions Flashcards
Define : Anatomy
Deals with the structure of the body and its parts, in other words, what are things called?
Define : Physiology
Studies the functions of these parts or asks the question, “how do they work”
Define : Pathophysiology
How physiological processes are altered in disease or injury.
Define : Comparitive Physiology
Physiology of Invertebrates
What is Homeostasis?
Process used by organisms to maintain fairly stable internal conditions
Example: The body’s ability to maintain an internal temperature around 98.6 deg F, regardless of external temp.
What is negative feedback?
Action of the effector returns condition to set-point
Example 1: If a persons body was really cold, negative feedback would work in order to increase their temperature (shivering)
Example 2: If a persons body was really warm, negative feedback would work in order to decrease their temperature (sweating)
Positive Feedback
Amplifies change, could not work alone, but contributes to many negative feedback loops.
Example 1: If a blood vessel is damage, a process is begun to form a clot. Once the damage is fixed, clotting ends(negative feedback) However the process of forming the clot involves positive feedback.
Example 2: In females, positive feedback is used to relate the LH surge that causes ovulation.
Three Components of a Typical Homeostatic Mechanism?
Sensor - Detects the issue and sends information to the integrating center
Integrating Center - Determines the appropriate response and deploys the effector
Effector - Combats the issue most likely using negative feedback to return internal conditions to normal ranges
Define the following types of Homeostasis: Autoregulation (intrinsic), Extrinsic Regulation
Autoregulation : When a cell, tissue, organ, organ system adjusts automatically in response to environmental change.
Extrinsic Regulation : Adjustments made by either the nervous system or endocrine system
Describe the structure of an atom and its subatomic particles, what are the charges of each, what is the mass of each, and what is the function of each?
Atoms are composed of protons (+), neutrons (O), electrons (-). Proton mass = 1, Neutron Mass 1, Electron Mass = 0.
Proton Function : Identity
Neutron Function : Nuclear Stability
Electron Function : Bonding
What is the difference between an atom and an element, how are they related?
Elements are made up of atoms, while atoms are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. They are related in the sense that elements consist of atoms, with the same number of protons in the nucleus.
What is an Ion?
A molecule with a + or - charge.
What is a Cation? Give two examples.
A molecule with a + charge.
Example : Calcium and Hydrogen
What is an Anion? Gives two examples
A Anion is a molecule with a - charge.
Examples : Phosphate, Sulfate
What is an isotope? Give an example.
Atoms of a single element with a different number of neutrons in the middle
Example : Carbon 12 and 14
Define : Atomic weight and Atomic Number
Atomic Weight = Mass of an Atom
Atomic Number = The average mass number of the isotopes
Can you determine the number of protons, electrons, neutrons from the atomic weight, atomic number?
Number of protons = Atomic Number
Number of Electrons = Number of Protons
Number of Neutrons = Mass number - Atomic Number
What is an energy level, what is the maximum number of electrons that each level can hold?
Energy Level is an electron’s orbit around the atom known as the electron shell. 1st shell can hold 2 electrons and shells 2 and 3 can hold 8 electrons each.
How do you determine if an atom is stable or unstable?
Stable atoms are atoms that have a maximum number of electrons in their outer shell. Unstable atoms are atoms with unfilled outer energy shells.
What is a chemical bond?
Chemical Bonds are interactions between unstable atoms that hold them together
What is a free radical?
Atom, molecule or ion that has at least one unpaired valence electron.
What are the three types of chemical bonds? How are they formed ?
Ionic Bonds - Formed by attraction of + and - charges.
Covalent Bonds - Occur when atoms share valence electrons
Hydrogen Bonds - When H forms polar bonds with another item it takes on a slight + charge
Give an example of molecules that make each of the three bonds?
Ionic Bonds - NaCI
Covalent Bonds - Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlorine
Hydrogen Bond - Any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen or nitrogen.
What is meant by the products and reactants of a reaction? Be able to read a chemical reaction if written for you.
Reactant : Substance that is present in the beginning of a chemical reaction
Product : Substance that is present in the end of a chemical reaction
Describe PH, what is being measured?
Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions on a logarithmic scale (power of 10)
Acids have a PH < 7
Bases have a PH >7
Neutral = 7
What is an Acid? What is a base?
Acid - More hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions
Base - More hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions
What are buffers?
Molecules that slow changes in pH by either combining with or releasing H+s
What is meant by hydrophobic and hydrophilic
Hydrophobic -Insoluble in water
Hydrophilic - Tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water
What is an organic molecule?
Those than contain carbon and hydrogen
What is meant by macromolecule
A very large molecule.
What are the four major bio molecules discussed in lecture?
Carbohydrates , Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.
Describe the function of a functional group of an organic company?
Carbonyl Group - Forms ketones and aldehydes
Hydrolysis Group - Forms Alcohols
Carboxyl Group - Forms organic acids
Describe the following reactions: Dehydration, Hydrolysis, Condensation
Dehydration - Hydrogen is removed from a carbon (Iffy)
Hydrolysis - Occurs when H2O is split, H+ added to one monosaccharide, OH- to other
Condensation - Occurs by splitting water out of 2 monosaccharides. An H+ and OH- are removed, producing H2O.
What are Carbohydrates? (Be able to identify the structure of a carbohydrate).
Organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in ratio of CnH2nOn
What is a monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide. What is the primary function of each in the body? (Such as glucose, maltose, glycogen).
Monosaccharide - Simple sugars such as glucose, fructose, galactose. Produce and store energy.
Disaccharide - 2 monosaccharides joined covalently, Include : Sucrose , Lactose , Maltose. Energy source for the body.
Polysaccharide- Many monosaccharides linked together, include starch and glycogen, energy storage or structural support
What are Lipids? (Be able to identify the lipids discussed in class)
Consist of primarily non polar hydrocarbon chains and rings. (Hydrophobic) (Add onto this during the lecture video)
Describe triglycerides (glycerol, fatty acids, saturated vs unsaturated)
Triglycerides - Formed by condensation of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Glycerol - Alcohol produced by the hydrolysis of triglycerides
Saturated - If hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are joined by a single covalent bonds
Unsaturated - If there are double bonds within hydrocarbon chains
What are phospholipids, glycolipids, and steroids, and where are they found?
Phospholipids - Lipids that contain a phosphate group, found in the cell membrane. Prevent accumulation of fats in the liver
Glycolipids - Lipids with a carbohydrate attached by a covalent bond found in the eukaryotic cellular membrane. Maintain the stability of the cell membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition.
Steroids - Nonpolar and insoluble in water, found in the cellular membrane/liver? Form and maintain cells and regulates membrane fluidity
What are micelles, why do they form in water?
Unit of structure built up from polymeric molecules or ions. Polar part interacts with water; non polar part is hidden in middle. (Iffy)
How are ketone bodies formed and why? How do they affect the blood pH?
Ketones are formed when there is not enough sugar or glucose to supply the body’s fuel needs. High Ketone levels can lead to ketoacidosis which results in a drop in blood pH.
What is a protein:
100 or more amino acids bonded together
What is the general structure of an amino acid. Understand the generalized folding pattern of a protein (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure).
Short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Primary - Sequence of amino acids
Secondary - Caused by weak H bonding of amino acids
Tertiary - Caused by bending and folding of polypeptide chains to produce 3-dimensional shape
Quaternary - Forms when a number of polypeptide chains are covalently joined.
What are enzymes?
Assist every chemical process in the body
What is the structure of ATP, DNA, and RNA
ATP - Adenine, Ribose Sugar, 3 serially bonded phosphate groups.
DNA - 2 strands of DNA twist to form a double helix. Deoxyribose sugar is covalently bonded to 1 of 4 bases : Guanine or adenine, cytosine or thymine. Chain is formed by sugar of 1 nucleotide bonding to phosphate of another.
RNA - Consists of a long chain of nucleotides joined together by sugar-phosphate bonds. Ribose sugar is bonded to 1 of 4 bases, Guanine or Adenine, Cytosine or Uracil. Single stranded.
What is the function of DNA, RNA and ATP?
DNA - Contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce.
RNA - Information for assembling a protein out of the nucleus and to actually assemble it.
ATP - Transfers energy from the breakdown of molecules in food to cell processes.
What is complementary base pairing?
Adenine pairs only with thymine; cytosine pairs only with guanine
How are bases paired between the following:
DNA-DNA = Deoxyribose sugar is covalently bonded to 1 of 4 bases: Guanine or Adenine, Cytosine or Thymine
RNA = Ribose Sugar is bonded to 1 of 4 bases : Guanine or Adenine, Cytosine or URACIL
ATP = Adenine, Ribose Sugar, 3 serially bonded phosphate groups
What is a cell, why is it considered the basic unit of life?
Basic unit of structure and function in the body, all livings things are made up of cells and also all the functions taking place inside the body of organisms are performed by cells.
What are the three common characteristics of a typical human cell?
Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucelus
What is an organelle?
Cytoplasmic structures that perform specialized function for cells
Function and Structure of the Nucleus
Stores the cell’s DNA, maintains its integrity, and facilitates its transcription and replication. Sphere structure, not the middle sphere
Function and structure of nucleolus
Contains genes actively making rRNA
Function and Structure of Free and Bound Ribosomes?
Free Ribosomes - Synthesize proteins that are released into the cytosine and used within the cell.
Bound Ribosomes - Translate mRNA for proteins which will be moved outside the cell.
Function and Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth and rough)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Contains ribosomes for protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Contains enzymes for steroid synthesis and inactivation
Function and structure of Mitochondria
Energy producing organelles
Function and structure of Vesicles (Lysosomes, Peroxisomes)
Lysosomes - Involved in recycling cell components, programmed cell death
Peroxisomes - Involved in detoxification in liver, breakdown hydrogen peroxide
Function and structure of Golgi Apparatus
Proteins received from the ER are further processed and sorted to transport to their eventual destinations
Function and Structure of Microtubule
Regulates cell growth and movement,
Function and structure of microfilament
Help to regenerate the forces used in cellular contraction and basic cell movement
Structure and function of Centrosome
Help in cell division, provide organization
Function and Structure of Centriole
Organizing microtubules that serve as the cell’s skeletal system.
Function and structure of cilia
Move water relative to the cell in a regular movement of the cilia
Structure and function of Flagella?
Movement, but also for aiding in cell feeding and eukaryotic reproduction
Structure and function of the plasma membrane
Regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell. Many substances are selectively allowed to pass through protein channels.
Why is the plasma membrane considered to be a lipid bilayer
It is a phospholipid barrier between the intercellular and extra cellular environments. Composed of two layers of fat cells organized in two sheets.
Function of Transmembrane protein (integral)
Channeling or transporting molecules across the membrane.
Function of Peripheral Protein
Allows cells to coordinate and communicate using networks of proteins and reactions.
Function of Glycoprotein
Allow white blood cells to move around the body - initiate immune responses, and identify other cells.
Function of Glycolipids
Maintains the stability of the cell membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition, provides energy to the cell.
Functions of transmembrane proteins?
Structural support, transport, enzymatic control of cell processes, receptors for hormones and other molecules, self markers for the immune system.
Describe Endocytosis
Important large compounds
Describe Phagocytosis
Cell Eating
Describe Pinocytosis
Cell Drinking
Describe receptor mediated endocytosis
Actively transport molecules into cell
Describe Exocytosis
Export products into the extra cellular fluid.
What is a gene?
Lengths of DNA that code for proteins
Describe Chromatin
Made of DNA and its associated proteins - histones
Describe Euchromatin
Part of chromosomes active in transportation
Describe Hetrochromatin
Highly condensed region where genes are permanently inactivated
Describe the process of protein synthesis (transcription and translation)
Transcription - Transfer of genetic instruction in DNA to mRNA in the nucleus. After mRNA is processed, it carries the instructions to ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Translation - Occurs in ribosome, consists of rRNA and proteins. Instructions in mRNA are read, and tRNA brings correct sequence of amino acids to ribosomes. RRNA helps bonds between the amino acids, producing a polypeptide chain.
Transcribe and Translate a DNA sequence
DNA : A-T, G-C, C-G, T-A
RNA : G-C, A-U, T-A, C-G
Where in the cell does transcription take place
Nucleus
Where in the cell does translation take place
Ribosomes
What is mRNA
Type of RNA found in cells. MRNA molecules carry genetic information needed too make proteins.
What is a Codon?
Sequence of three consecutive nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule that codes for a specific amino acid
How does the ribosome determine the beginning or the end of a protein
Once a Ribosomes recognizes the AUG(start) (codon) it realizes that it is the start of the protein, once the ribosome reaches the UAG(stop)it releases the protein onto the rough ER and the ribosomes detaches from the mRNA.
Describe the extracellular environment
The part of of a multicellular organism out the cells, usually taken to be outside the plasma membrane, and occupied by fluid.
Define and Describe Intracellular Compartment and its water content
Space within the organism’s cells, makes up about 2/3 of total water in the human body.
Define and describe extracellular compartment and its water content
All body fluid outside of cells, makes up about 1/3 of body fluid
Describe the extracellular matrix and what are its components
Large network of proteins and other molecules that surround, support, and give structure to cells and tissues in the body. Comprised of: protein, glycosaminoglycan and glycoconjugate
Define diffusion and an example of it
Random motion of molecules, net movement is from region of high to low concentration.
Example: Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas occurs in lungs
Define Osmosis and give an example of it
Diffusion of H2O across a selectively permeable membrane
Example: Osmosis in kidneys ensures that the molecules of wastes as well as excess water in the blood are filtered and expelled from body.
What are factors that affect the rate of diffusion
Magnitude of its concentration gradient, permeability of membrane to it, temperature, surface area of membrane, size of molecule.
Why is the plasma membrane said to be semi-permeable?
Allows only certain kinds of molecules to pass
Describe Passive Transport, give an example
Type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances across cell membranes.
Example : Diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood
Define Simple Diffusion, give an example
Process in which solutes are passed through the concentration gradient in a solution across a semipermeable membrane
Example: Tea bag immersed in a cup of hat water will diffuse into the water and change its color
Define Non-Carrier mediated transport, give an example
Occurs by diffusion through the membrane
Example: Glucose is transported by glucose carrier
Define Facilitated Diffusion and Example
Molecules diffuse across the plasma membrane with assistance from membrane proteins
Example: Transport o glucose and amino acid from the bloodstream into cell
Define Active Transport and an Example
Moves compounds against a concentration gradient, requires energy and transports
Example : Transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell
Define Primary Active Transport, example
Uses chemical energy to transport all species of solutes across a membrane across their concentration gradient
Example Sodium-Potassium dump
Define Secondary Active Transport and Example
Movement of a molecule down its gradient coupled to the movement of another molecule against its gradient
Example: Movement of glucose in the proximal convoluted tubule
Define Cotransport and example
Transport of molecules in same direction.
Example: NA+/Glucose cotransporter, which couples the movement of NA+ into the cell down its electrochemical gradient to the movement of glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient
Define Countertransport and example
Transport of molecule in the opposite direction
Example Sodium-Calcium exchanger
Define Active Transport Pump
Transport of molecules against a concentration gradient
Example: Uptake of glucose in the intestines
What is a mole, how it related to Avogadro’s number
Amount of a substance, 6.02 x 10^23, it is related because Avogadro’s number is equal to 1 mole.
How is the mole related to the molecular weight (mw) of a compound in grams
1 mole = molecular weight of a compound in grams
Define Molarity
Number of moles of solute per one liter of solution
Define Molality
Total moles of a solute contained in a kilogram of a solvent
Define Osmolality
Total Molality of a solution
What is Osm (Osmolality) related to the freezing point of a solution
Freezing point of a solution of a solution depends on the concentration of the solution. As more solute is added, the freezing point decreases further.
What is the Osm of blood
Narrow range around 300 mOsm
Describe Tonicity:
The ability of a solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis. A solution’s tonicity is related to its Osmolality, which is the oral concentration of all solutes in the solution
Describe Isotonic
Solutions have same osmotic pressure
Define Hypertonic
Solutions have higher osmotic pressure and are osmotically active
Define Hypotonic
Solutions have lower osmotic pressure
How does the body regulate blood Osmolality
When Osmolality increases, it triggers your body to make ADH which causes the kidney to conserve H2O and thist
