Chapter 1-3 Flashcards
Four flaws of ordinary thinking: Overgeneralization.
Overgeneralization occurs when we conclude that what we have observed or what we know to be true for some cases is true for all or most cases.
Four flaws of ordinary thinking: selective and inaccurate
observation.
Selective observation is a common mistake in learning about the social world. It is choosing to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs.
Our observations may also simply be inaccurate.
Four flaws of ordinary thinking: illogical reasoning
When we prematurely jump to conclusions or argue on the basis of invalid assumptions, we are using illogical reasoning.
Four flaws of ordinary thinking: resistance to change
Resistance to change – the reluctance to reevaluate our ideas in the light of new information. It may occur for several reasons:
- . Ego-based commitments: Making statements about the social world that conform to our own needs rather than to the observable facts
- Excessive devotion to tradition: Distorting our observations or alter out reasoning so we can maintain traditional beliefs
- Uncritical agreement with authority: We do not have the courage to evaluate critically the ideas of those in positions of authority
Four different kinds of social research: descriptive.
Descriptive research – The findings simply describe differences or variations in social phenomena (e.g., changes in neighborhood crime rates from year to year).
Descriptive research:
- Does not answer how, when, or why the characteristics occurred (e.g., crime rates decreased from 2013 to 2014)
- Cannot describe what caused a situation, how one variable affects another
- The description is used for frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations
Four different kinds of social research: exploratory
- Exploratory research – seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them (e.g., how do opiate users undergo self-detoxification?).Exploratory research:
- Its goal is to learn “what is going on here”?
- Extremely helpful when there is little literature on a topic/concept
- Helps investigate a topic and gain insights about its underlying nature (McNaab, 2010)
- Typically precedes explanatory research (but not necessarily!)
Four different kinds of social research: explanatory
- Explanatory Research – seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in another phenomenon (e.g., what is the effect of class attendance on final class grades?).
Explanatory research:
- Is based on causal explanations: Y (e.g., ice cream sales) is affected by X (e.g., weather temperature)
Four different kinds of social research: program evaluation
- Evaluation research – seeks to determine the effects of programs, policies, or other efforts to impact social patterns, whether by government agencies, private, non-profits, or for-profit businesses (e.g., does the cognitive-behavioral treatment program reduce recidivism among inmates?).Evaluation research:
- Asks the question “does the program work?”
- Began after expansion of federal government during the Great Depression and WWII
Validity: measurement validity.
Measurement validity: how well does the test measure what it purports to measure? (e.g., how liberal are you?)
-Without having measured what we think we have measured, we can have no valid conclusions.
Validity: generalizability.
Generalizability: does the conclusion hold true for the population, group, setting, or event that we say it does, given the conditions that we specify.
-It is the extent to which the study can inform us about the persons, places, or events that were not directly studied.
Validity: causal validity.
Causal validity (also known as internal validity): the truthfulness of an assertion that A causes B (causality). -Even with a properly randomized experiment, causal findings can be mistaken because of a factor that was not recognized during the planning of the study.
Research question
A social research question: a question about the social world that you seek to answer through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, empirical data, for example:
- To what extent do public agencies respond to the wishes of their elected superiors (Ringquist, 1995)?
- How can the process of public participation be improved (King, Feltey, & Susel, 1998)?
It is not easy to specify a research question. In many cases, formulating a good research question can be surprisingly difficult.
Definition and purposes of theory.
A theory is a logically interrelated set of propositions that helps us make sense of many interrelated phenomena and predict behavior or attitudes that are likely to occur when certain conditions are met.
Usefulness of a theory: a capacity to describe, explain, and predict (Frederickson & Smith, 2003).
Building and evaluating theory is one of the most important objectives of social science.
Social theories suggest the areas on which we should focus and the propositions that we should consider testing.
Hypothesis.
We call the specific expectation deduced from the more general theory a hypothesis.
A hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or more variables – characteristics or properties that can vary, for example:
- As the temperature increases, so do the sales of ice cream.
- Employee satisfaction increases employee productivity.
- Motorists that are texting while driving will be more likely to cause an accident than those that are not.
Elements of human subject protection in research: Obtain informed consent.
Informed consent is a process, a means to inform a research participant about the details of the study, highlighting potential risks and benefits.
Consent must be given by persons who are competent to consent, have consented voluntarily, are fully informed about the research, and have comprehended what they have been told.
Types of consent:
- Written;
- Verbal;
- Information/Fact Sheet;
- Parental Permission, etc.
Vulnerable populations that require special treatment in research:
- Children;
- Prisoners;
- Veterans;
- Pregnant women;
- Mentally disabled persons;
- Economically disadvantaged persons, etc.
