Chapter 1 & 2 - KSS Flashcards
abstract
a section of a scientific report that is a concise summary of the whole investigation
accuracy
how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured
Allocation
Dividing a sample into groups in an investigation
anecdote
a short personal account of an event
Beneficence
an ethical concept involving the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms
Between subjects design
An investigation design in which participants are randomly allocated to either the control or experimental condition
Case study
a type of investigation of a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes real-world complexities
Classification and identification
a type of investigation that involves arranging phenomena objects or events into manageable sets and recognising phenomena as belonging to a particular set or part of a new or unique set
conclusion
a statement about the findings of a study, which addresses the aim and hypothesis
Confidentiality
an ethical guideline that ensures participants remain anonymous, and their personal information is kept private, protected and secure throughout the study
Confounding variable
An unwanted variable that has affected the results of an investigation
contradictory data
data that appears incorrect
Control group
The group that forms a baseline level to compare the experimental group with
Controlled experiment
An experimental investigation of the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable, in which all other variables are controlled
Strengths - can identify a cause-and-effect relationship between an IV and DV - results may be generalised to the population of interest if the study is deemed to have good validity - Controlled experiments can be repeated to gather more data and test the reproducibility and repeatability of results
Limitations - require strictly controlled conditions, which may be difficult to maintain, so results may be influence by extraneous variables - Participants behaviour may be influenced by the artificial nature of the setting - It may be unethical or impossible to conduct a controlled experiment on a particular variable - external validity may be low if the conditions are too artificial to extrapolate results to the population of interest outside the experiment
Controlled variable
A variable that is held constant to ensure that the only influence on the dependent variable is the independent variable
Convenience sampling
Sample selection procedure involving choice of participants who are readily or most easily available
Strengths - Usually time and cost effective as participants can be accessed relatively easily due to their availability
Limitations - tends to produce sample bias and non-representativeness, thereby limiting generalisations to the population of research interest
Correlation study
a type of investigation that involves planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationships or associations existing between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance, and to make predictions
debriefing
an ethical guideline involving provision of information to participants at the end of the study, including the true aims, results and conclusions, and answering any questions, clarifying misunderstandings or deception, and providing support to ensure no lasting harm
deception in research
an ethical guideline involving withholding the true nature of the study from participants, when their knowledge of the true purpose may affect their behaviour and subsequent validity of the investigation
Dependent variable
The variable that is being measured by the researcher
discussion section
a section of a scientific report or poster that analyses the findings and concludes the research
ethical concepts
general ethical considerations used to analyse the ethical and moral aspects of conduct surrounding psychological issues and psychological investigations
ethical guidelines
guidelines that ensure the protection and welfare of all participants in research
evidence
a verified fact
Experimental group
The group that is exposed to the independent variable and receives the experimental treatment
external validity
whether the results of research can be applied to similar individuals in a different setting
Extraneous variable
A variable other than the independent variable that may have an unwanted effect on the dependent variable and results of an investigation
Fieldwork
a type of investigation that involves collecting information through observing and interacting with a selected environment - Can be conducted through: - direct observation and sampling (time sampling [behaviour over a specific time interval], event sampling [behaviour when specific events occur], situational sampling [same behaviour over multiple circumstance] - Participant observation (researcher becomes an active participant) - Interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, and yarning circles
Hypothesis
An idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proven - a statement outlining the probable outcomes of an investigation - outlines whether one variable (DV) will change as a result of another variable (IV)
implications
the impact a study might have on the population, relevant theory and future research
incomplete data
data that has elements missing
Independent variable
The variable that is being manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) by the researcher
informed consent procedures
an ethical guideline conducted before a study begins - participants agree to participate after they have received all the details of the study, including the purpose, procedures and potential risks
Integrity
an ethical concept involving the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results
internal validity
whether a study investigates what it sets out or claims to investigate
introduction section
a section of a scientific report or poster that provides an overview of what the investigation is trying to achieve and why it is important
Investigation aim
The purpose of a study - written as a statement that includes the variables being studied
Investigation design
A framework that determines how participants experience the experimental and control conditions
Investigation methodology
The particular type of research study
Investigation question
The question that is to be solved by a study
Justice
an ethical concept involving fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair access to benefits of an action
Limitations of a between subjects design
Limitations - More participants are needed in a between subjects design than a within subjects design - less control over extraneous variable of participant variables between groups, which may influence the results in an unwanted way, lowering validity
limitations of conclusions
the faults or flaws in the design of an investigation that may limit the conclusions of that investigation
Limitations of correlation studies
- Correlation does not equal or imply causation, so even if a strong relationship is determined, you cannot assume that one variable causes a change in the other.
- The relationship is bi-directional, and you cannot determine which variable has more influence.
- A large amount of data is required.
- As extraneous variables are not controlled for, you cannot determine that there was not an influence of a third variable, meaning there is a low internal validity.
Limitations of fieldwork
- Observed behaviour is subjective and open to interpretation and bias by the researcher.
- Fieldwork is prone to social desirability bias, whereby participants respond in a way that they think they should respond, particularly if the researcher is present.
- In questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and yarning circles, participant responses may be inaccurate because of dishonesty, memory issues, difficulty communicating, language abilities or misunderstanding the question.
- Qualitative data can be difficult to summarise.
- Interviews, focus groups and yarning circles can be time consuming.
- There is minimal control over extraneous variables and results may not be replicable.
- There are ethical concerns with the lack of informed consent in some cases.
Limitations of literature reviews
- Key studies may be missed if the search criteria or focus of a review is too narrow, resulting in a review that lacks depth.
- A selection bias in the chosen studies may result in the review being unrepresentative of current understanding or provide unbalanced conclusions.
- A literature review may not comment on the validity of the original research or how the studies were selected, resulting in the reader being unable to determine the quality of each study within the review, or the review as a whole.
- Literature reviews may describe multiple studies but lack a deeper analysis of the individual studies.
- Only secondary data is acquired.
Limitations of modelling and simulation
- A large amount of valid source data may be needed in the creation of a model.
- Computer simulations require precise, consistent statistical analysis in order to function accurately as a valid, repeatable and replicable measure.
- A psychological theory may be well understood but difficult to apply as a working model.
- Simulations are not the real thing and people may respond differently in real life, so simulations involve assumptions about behaviour that lower external validity because of artificiality.
- Complex models and simulations may be expensive.
Limitations of using a case study
- One person or a small group of people cannot be representative of a population, so results from a case study cannot be generalised to the population, and there is a low external validity.
- Researcher bias may influence the recording, collation and treatment of data.
- They may not be repeatable to gain more data or to test reliability of results.
- They are typically time consuming.
Limitations of using classification and identification
- Labelling through identification can lead to stereotyping, prejudice or discrimination.
- Classifications may be based on subjective criteria.
- Large amounts of information are required to create classifications.
Literature review
a type of investigation that involves collating and analysing secondary data findings and viewpoints
mean
a statistic that is the average value of a set of data
measurement error
the difference between the measured value and the true value
measures of central tendency
a category of statistics that describes the central value of a set of data
measures of variability
a category of statistics that describe the distribution of data
median
the middle value in an ordered set of data
methodology section
a section of a scientific report or poster that describes the participants, materials and procedures used in the study
Mixed design
an investigation design that combines elements of a between subjects design and a within subjects design
Strengths - differences in participant variables between groups are controlled in the within subjects design element - Can test the effect of multiple independent variables on a dependent variable in one investigation - Testing multiple independent variables in one investigation can be time and cost effective compared to completing two or more separate investigations
Limitations - There is a higher rate of participant withdrawal from the study than using a between subjects design alone, which can be detrimental to the internal validity - There is less control over participant knowledge of the study - less control over differences in participant variables between groups in the between subjects element, which may influence results in an unwanted way, lowering validity
mode
the value that occurs the most frequently within a set of data
Modelling
a type of investigation in which a physical or conceptual model is constructed and/or manipulated to simulate a system
Non-maleficence
an ethical concept involving the avoidance of causing harm
Occupational health and safety (OHS)
issues of health, safety and welfare that must be protected in the workplace
opinion
a judgement that is not necessarily based on proof
outliers
a value that lies a long way from other results
personal errors
a mistake, miscalculation or observer error made when conducting research
Population
The wider group of people that a study is investigating
precision
how close a set of measurement values are to each other
primary data
data collected through first-hand research for an intended purpose
Product, process and system development
a type of investigation in which a product, a process or a system is designed to meet a human need
qualitative data
data that describes characteristics and qualities
quantitative data
data that includes measurable values and quantities and can be compared on a numerical scale
Random allocation
Dividing a sample into groups in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being placed into the experimental group or the control group
random errors
an error that creates unpredictable variations in the measurement process and results in a spread of readings
Random sampling
Selecting participants from the population in a way that means each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study
Strengths: a large enough sample size is big likely to be representative of the population, improving external validity
Limitations: - small random samples may not be representative of the population, reducing external validity - it may be difficult, time consuming, impossible or unethical to obtain names of all members of the population
references and acknowledgements section
a list of all the sources used in a scientific report or poster
repeatability
the closeness of the agreement between successive measurements of the same quantity, carried out under the same conditions
replicability
giving the same answer to a scientific question when a different method is used and different data is obtained
reproducibility
the closeness of the agreement between measurements of the same quantity, carried out under different conditions
Respect
an ethical concept involving the consideration of the value of living things, giving due regard, and consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions
results section
a section of a scientific report or poster that outlines the evidence and findings of the study
Risk assessment
a process involving the consideration, identification and reduction of physical and psychological risk
safety data sheet (SDS)
a document that provides all the important information about a substance, such as its ingredients, precautionary statements and first aid measures
Sample
The smaller group of people selected from the population who will be participants in the investigation
Sampling technique
Different procedures for selecting participants from the population
scientific poster
a way to present the main sections of a scientific report in a brief and visual way
scientific report
a report outlining why and how some research was conducted, with an analysis of the findings
secondary data
data obtained second hand through research conducted by another person for another purpose
Simulation
a type of investigation that uses a model to replicate and study the behaviour of a system
standard deviation
a statistic that shows the spread of the data around the mean
Stratified sampling
First dividing the population into subgroups, and then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup in the proportion that they appear in the population
Strengths: - a large enough stratified sample is likely to be representative of the population, improving external validity - important subgroups of a population are ensured fair representation
Limitations: - may be difficult, impossible or unethical to obtain names of all members of the population. - it is more time consuming than random sampling technique because of the need to form subgroups and any pre-testing required
Strengths of a between subjects design
Strengths - the most time-efficient design because both groups can be tested at the same time and no pre-testing is required - has a lower rate of participant withdrawal than a within subjects design because participants only complete one condition - there is a better control of participant knowledge of the study and there is no effect of prior participation extraneous variables influencing results compared with a within subjects design
Strengths of correlation studies
- The direction and strength of a relationship between variables can be determined using a correlational study.
- They can be used to gather initial information that is investigated further or to research behaviours where controlled experiments cannot be used for practical or ethical reasons.
- Observation of real-life behaviours with no manipulation of variables may result in behaviours that are more natural.
- Secondary data can be used.
- If a relationship between two variables is determined, the value of one variable can then be used to predict the value of the other variable.
- They can be used to determine the repeatability, reproducibility and validity of measurements, and they are often high in external validity.
- Extra procedures to control for extraneous variables are not needed.
Strengths of fieldwork
- Information on sensitive topics can be obtained using fieldwork.
- A large amount of quantitative data can be gathered in a questionnaire in less time than for a controlled experiment.
- Participant anonymity in questionnaires can reduce dishonest or biased answers.
- Rich qualitative responses can be obtained in the participant’s own words.
- Natural settings are more likely to show behaviour that reflects real life.
- If participants are unaware that they are being studied, there is no change in their behaviour due to their belief of how they are expected to behave.
- Fieldwork can be used when it would be impossible or unethical to investigate by controlled experimental methods.
- Fieldwork can help to gain insight into existing data or behaviours that were not expected.
Strengths of literature reviews
- A literature review can determine what is already known and whether there is a solid foundation of knowledge, based on multiple sources.
- They help introduce existing understanding and context for primary research.
- They can identify expert researchers in the field.
- They identify gaps in current understanding and areas for future research.
- They identify methodologies that have been successful or not successful at generating significant findings.
Strengths of modelling and simulation
- Modelling can allow unobservable events to be visualised.
- Once established, a computer simulation can run quickly with multiple trials in a short amount of time, including events that would usually be long running.
- Modelling and simulation can be used to safely study new devices, therapies or treatments that would be too dangerous or unethical or logistically impossible to conduct in controlled experiments.
- Simulations can allow us to predict future events and ‘what if’ situations.
- Modelling and simulations can test a product before it is created.
Strengths of using a case study
- Case studies are useful when a limited number of participants are available.
- They can be used to study experiences where it would be unethical or impossible to design and conduct a controlled experiment.
- They can provide rich qualitative data.
- They can act as a basis for further research.
Strengths of using classification and identification
- Classifications can allow for a narrowed focus of research.
- People identified as having a similar classification can feel a sense of belonging and support.
- Using classifications can allow for efficient processing of large amounts of information.
- Classifications can help make predictions and inferences.
systematic error
an error that causes readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made
true value
the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly
uncertainty
a lack of exact knowledge of the value being measured
validity
whether a measurement measures what is supposed to measure
withdrawal rights
an ethical guideline that ensures the participants are free to discontinue their involvement in a study at any point during or after the conclusion of the study, without receiving any penalty
Within subjects design
An investigation design in which all participants in the sample are involved in both the experimental and control conditions
Strengths - no extraneous variable of participant variables between groups, improving validity - Fewer participants are needed than in a between subjects design
Limitations - less control over participant knowledge of the study. The extraneous variable of prior participation in the first condition may influence their behaviour while completing the second condition - more time consuming than a between subjects design because both conditions cannot be tested at the same time - There is a higher rate of participant withdrawal from the study than in a between subjects design because the DV has to be measured multiple times
