Chapter 1 & 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Atoms - Molecules - - - Organ - – Organism
A
Atoms - Molecules - Organelle - Cell - Tissue - Organ - System - Organism
2
Q
Organizational level of the body (6)
A
Chemical Cellular Tissue Organs System Organism
3
Q
Chemical level is _
What are the most important atoms and ions
A
Atoms - molecules - organelles
CHON & Na K Ca Cl
4
Q
An organelle is_
A
The fundamental component of a cell
5
Q
Cellular level is _
A
molecules - cells
6
Q
What is a cell?
Hint: mention all definitions and functions of a cell
A
- Fundamental basic unit of all living things
- Smallest unit of organism
- It is quasi autonomous (partially independent/ self governing )
- Functional and structural component for life
7
Q
Tissue level is _
A
Cells - tissue
8
Q
What is a tissue?
A
grp of similar cells that fulfill same end function
9
Q
T/F
similar cells derived from common stem cells have common general function
A
T
10
Q
T/F
Can each type of cell in a tissue have a diff role?
A
T
11
Q
Main types of tissue (4)
A
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
12
Q
What does Epithelial tissue do
A
cover surface of body and lines the internal cavities
13
Q
What does the Connective tissue do?
A
support the body and protects the organs (filler tissues)
14
Q
What does the Muscle tissue do?
A
produce movement
15
Q
What does the Nervous tissue do?
A
allow fast internal communication via transmission of electrical impulses
16
Q
Organ is_
A
- tissue - organ
- Made up of at least 2 organs
- has a defined function and form
- each organ has a specialized functional structure that executes specific activity that no other organ can do
- can be a part of 2 systems
17
Q
System is _
A
- made up of organs that work together to accomplish common function
- group of organs with relationships btw themselves
18
Q
What are the two main systems
A
CNS and the Endocrine System
19
Q
What is an organism?
A
group of systems that are interdependent
20
Q
Digestive system
A
breaks down nutrients, absorbs nutrients, eliminates unabsorbed matter (excretion of feces)
21
Q
Integumentary system
A
protects from environment
22
Q
Respiratory system
A
oxygen taken in and CO2 eliminated
23
Q
Urinary system
A
eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
24
Q
What does Cardiovascular system do ?
A
blood carrys o2 + nutrients to cells and co2 and wastes to disposal organs
25
List 7 systems in the body
```
CNS
Endocrine
Urinary
Cardiovascular
Integumentary
Digestive
Respiratory
```
26
Homeostasis is_
equilibrium of internal systems
27
What are the two mechanisms to regulate Homeostasis
Negative and Positive Feedback
28
Negative Feedback
- the most important of the 2 in terms of quantity
- the system puts an end to the stimulus or decreases its intensity
- the value of the variable changes in an opposite direction to the initial changes and returns to an optimal value
- this prevents sudden and important changes at the level of the organism
29
What is Positive Feedback
- the least important of the 2 in terms of quantity
- the value of the variable changes in the same direction to the initial changes and so requires a key event for it to stop
30
Negative Feedback mechanism
decreases intensity of the initial stimuli (stress e.g., temp/o2/noise/pain...
maintain the body parameter in the acceptable norm
31
the negative feedback mechanism communicates in 2 ways:
chemical (slow,endocrine)
| electric (rapid, nervous)
32
incapacity of the negative feedback mechanisms to restore equilibrium
death
33
negative feedback system is comprised of 3 elements:
Receptors
Control center
Effectors
34
negative feedback system is comprised of 2 pathways
Afferent
| Efferent
35
afferent –
brings information from the receptors to the central nervous system (CNS)
36
efferent –
brings information from the central nervous system (CNS) to the effectors
37
Receptors
- capture
- monitor the environment
- reacts to the stimuli (changes)
- informs the control center of the level of the parameter via the afferent pathway
38
Control center
- determines the optimal level of the parameter (sets the reference value)
- analyses the data
- determines the appropriate
reaction/response
- informs via the efferent pathway
39
Effectors
- acts according to the instructions given by the control center
- feedback that acts on the stimulus
40
Positive feedback mechanism
- amplifies the initial stimulus
- implies both the nervous & endocrine systems
- more rare; applies to occasional events
- causes the system to enter an unstable state
- must have stop mechanisms
41
How to restore balance pathway? (negative feedback)
Stimulus (produces change in variable) - receptor (detects change) - input ( info sent along afferent pathway to the control center) - Control center - output (information sent along efferent pathway to effector) - Effector - Response ( of the effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level)
42
Examples of positive feedback
Blood clotting and uterus contraction during parturition (childbirth)
43
T/F
| Large the sugar the less soluble it is?
T
44
The basic unit of carbohydrates
monosaccharides
45
Examples of monosaccharides
Pentose ( ribose and deoxyribose)
| Hexoses ( glucose/fructose/galactose)
46
What rxn forms a disaccharide?
Dehydration (synthesis) rxns
47
glucose + fructose
sucrose (table sugar)
48
glucose + galactose
lactose (in milk)
49
glucose + glucose
maltose (in beer)
50
Are mono and disaccharides soluble in water?
Yes
| hydrophilic
51
which carbohydrates are a great source of readily available energy (2)
mon and disaccharides
52
T/F
| Disaccharides are too large to cross thru the cell membrane
T
| They need to be broken down via hydrolysis (during digestion)
53
What is a polysaccharide?
long chain of simple sugars joined together thru synthesis.
54
T/F
| polysaccharides are too large to cross thru the cell membrane
T
| They need to be broken down via hydrolysis (during digestion)
55
Are polysaccharides hydrophilic or hydrophobic ?
Hydrophobic in water
56
What is the use of polysaccharides?
storage
57
2 important polysaccharides in our organism?
starch and glycogen
58
What is the main use of starch?
sugar reserves in plants
59
What is the main use of glycogen?
sugar reserves in animals
60
T/F
| Is cellulose a type of monosaccharide?
No
| It is a type of polysaccharide
61
What is the main use of cellulose?
main substance in the walls of plant cells i.e. fiber wc aids in digestion
62
Lipids or glucose release the most energy ?
glucose is easier to break for instant energy release but not a lot of energy is released compared to lipids
63
Types of lipids (4)
Eicosanoids
steroids
phospholipids
neutral fats
64
Lipids are hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophobic bcoz of the long carbon chain
65
Neutral fats are also known as...
triglycerides or triacyclglycerols
66
When solid neutral fats are know as...
fats
67
When liquid neutral fats are know as...
oils
68
What two parts make a triglycerides aka triacyclglycerols
- 3 fatty acids tails
| glycerol backbone
69
Characteristics of neutral fats (4)
* **the principal source of energy reserve in org***
- most concentrated source of usable energy in org
- store energy wc is slower to obtain compared to glucose
- non polar molecule
- good thermal insulator and good protection against lesions of mechanical origin (protection and thermal insulator)
70
What consists of
- glycerol backbone
- 2 fatty acid chains
- 1 phosphate group
phospholipids/ phosphoglycerolipids
71
Characteristics of phospholipids / phosphoglycerolipids (4)
- basic component of the cell membrane
- also found in the nervous tissue
- amphipathic ( has both polar hydrocarbon tail and nonpolar hydrophilic head)
- involved in lipid transportation in plasma
72
Characteristics of steroids
- insoluble
| - flat molecule juxaposed hydrocarbon rings
73
most important steroid for humans is..
cholesterol
74
Cholesterol is used to produce...(4)
Vitamin D
steroids hormones
sex hormones
bile salts
75
where is cholesterol present...
cell membranes
76
what are steroid hormones used for?
maintain homeostasis
77
bile salts function and origin
degradation product of cholesterol
| - secreted by the liver an released into the gut for digestion and fat absorption
78
vitamin D function and origin
produced under the skin by UV rays
| - growth and normal function of bones
79
sex hormones function and origin
Female hormones: estrogen & progesterone
Male hormones: testosterone
- secreted by the gonads
- essential for the functioning of the organs of the reproductive system
80
adreno-cortical hormones function and origin
cortisol ( a corticosteroid)
-necessary hormone of metabolism to maintain a normal rate of blood sugar
aldosterone
-acts upon the kidneys thus contributing to the regulation of the equilibrium of salts and water
81
cholesterol function and origin
basic constituent for the formation of all steroids in the organism
82
lipoprotein function and origin
High density lipoproteins and low density lipoproteins
| - transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the blood
83
Liposoluble vitamins
DEAK
84
Vitamin E
- found in green veggies
| - cancer/wound healing/fertility
85
Vitamin A
- found fruits & veggies w orange pigment
| - vision
86
Vitamin K
- found in foods and produced by humans intestinal bacteria rxns
- blood coagulation
87
Eicosanoids
- lipids derived from a 20 C fatty acid called arachidonic acid
88
what is arachidonic acid
a 20 C fatty acid that forms Eicosanoids
89
where are Eicosanoids found
present in cell membranes
90
what are the most important Eicosanoids
prostaglandins & chemical mediators (wc allow hormones to be produced) +
direction hormones
91
Eicosanoids function
participate in the functioning of --coagulation, inflammation
reaction & contractions during parturition
92
Omega -3 Fatty acids aka
alpha-linolenic acid
93
Omega -6 Fatty acids aka
linoleic acid
94
Eicosanoids most similar to hormones (3)
prostaglandins
leukotrienes
thromboxanes
95
prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes origin
derived from fatty acids present in all cell
membranes
-
96
prostaglandins
- stimulation for the uterine contraction,
-regulation of arterial pressure,
-regulation of
the mechanical actions of the digestive tube and the secretory activities
97
prostaglandins & leukotrienes roles (these are types of eicosanoids)
role in inflammation reaction
98
What is the function of thromboxanes
powerful vasoconstrictors
99
what are proteins
principal structural material of the organism
100
proteins contain what atoms
N C H O P S
101
What is basic unit of the protein
amino acids
102
What is the bond that joins amino acids together?
peptide bonds
103
Name the Categories of proteins? 2
globular (metabolic)
| structural (fibrous)
104
Characteristics globular (metabolic) proteins
compact & spherical
soluble molecules in water, mobile & chemically active
105
Characteristics structural (fibrous) proteins
- long & filiform
- linear
- insoluble in water
- very stable
- ideal material to ensure mechanical support to the tissues & a resistance to stretching
106
examples of globular (metabolic) proteins
enzymes ( -ase ex.: lipase,
hormones
antibody ( immunoglobulins
hemoglobin
107
examples of structural (fibrous) proteins
collagen (bone, connective tissue
keratin (skin, hair, nails
actin of the cytoskeleton (interior of the cell)
108
collagen
present in all CT, most abundant protein in
the human body,
- give the resistance to stretching that
bone, tendon ligaments
109
keratin
structural protein of hairs nails make skin
| impermeable
110
elastin
is found with collagen, in tissues requiring
resistance flexibility like ligaments that join bones
together
111
spectrin
stabilize reinforces from within, the cell
| membrane of certain cells like RBC
112
dystrophin
reinforces stabilizes the inner surface of
| the membranes of myocytes
113
titin
intervene in the organization of the internal
structure of myocytes gives elasticity to skeletal
muscles
114
fibrous protein that offer construction material, mechanical, support - 6
titin, dystrophin, spectrin, elastin, keratin collagen
115
fibrous protein that offer movement
actin, and myosin
116
actin, and myosin function
- are contractile proteins present in large
quantities in myocytes permitting contraction
( also intervenes with the division of all types
of cells
117
actin function
plays an important role in the intracellular transport, in particular in the nerve cells
118
enzymes
Catalysis
globular proteins
- they multiply the speed of the chemical reaction
- proteins having an active site capable of forming a
bond with a substrate
119
What does hemoglobin do
transport
globular proteins
- found in the blood, transport O 2 CO 2
120
albumin
pH adjustment
globular proteins
- act reversibly as acids or bases thus playing the role of buffers these prevent excessive variation in the pH of the blood
121
lipoproteins
transport lipids cholesterol in the blood
122
Protein functions
Catalysis, transport, pH adjustment, regulation
of the metabolism, defense
of the organism
123
primary Protein structure
basic polypeptide chains
124
secondary Protein structure
via hydrogen bonds
ex.: F, O, N (ions)
sheets or helix
125
quaternary Protein structure
regrouping of the tertiary structures (sub units) = functional protein
126
tertiary Protein structure
specializing of specific function folding again
127
Once enzyme + substrate bond is made we ...
- once the bond is formed, we get
assembly
coupling
modification
- once the operation is done the enzyme releases the
product & returns to rest ready to begin again
128
nucleic acids (2)
DNA
| RNA
129
nucleic acids nucleotides are the basic unit
nucleotides are the basic unit
130
nucleic acids consists of what 3 parts
- nucleobase
- pentose molecule (sugar) (ribose or deoxyribose
- phosphate group
131
there are 5 types of nucleobase
adenine (A)
guanine (G)
cytosine (C)
uracile (U) or thymine (T)
132
DNA is found
inside the nucleus
133
2 principal functions of DNA
replicate to have an ideal
copy of itself before cell
division
gives instructions for the
production of all the
proteins of the organism
134
What type of sugar is found in DNA
deoxyribose (sugar)
135
What type of sugar is found in RNA
ribose (sugar)
136
principal functions of RNA
```
« slave » molecule of DNA
execute the synthesis of
protein by following the
given instructions of the
DNA
```
137
RNA is found
outside the nucleus
138
DNA structure
double chain rolled in a
| double helix
139
RNA structure
simple straight chain or folded
140
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) function
- provide energy for muscular contraction, protein
synthesis & to maintain transmembrane ionic gradients
ADP + P = ATP
(mitochondria, need O2 & fuel or glycolysis (cytoplasm)
either aerobic & anaerobic
