Chapter 1 Flashcards
Who was among the first to represent the body in anatomic sections?
Leonardo da Vinci, in the 16th century.
Why did anatomists illustrate body structures in sectional planes?
To gain a greater understanding of the topographical relationships of organs.
When were x-rays discovered, and by whom?
In 1895, by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.
How has medical imaging evolved since the discovery of x-rays?
It evolved from 2D x-rays to 2D cross-sectional images (CT & MRI), and now to 3D imaging techniques.
Why is understanding sectional anatomy important for medical professionals?
To identify human anatomy in both 2D and 3D images.
What is the sagittal plane?
A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left portions.
What is the coronal plane?
A vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) portions.
What is the axial (transverse) plane?
A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.
What is the oblique plane?
A diagonal plane passing between the axes of two other planes.
How are sectional images conventionally displayed?
With the right side of the image corresponding to the viewer’s left side.
What does ‘Superior’ mean?
Above; at a higher level.
What does ‘Inferior’ mean?
Below; at a lower level.
What does ‘Anterior/Ventral’ mean?
Toward the front or anterior surface of the body.
What does ‘Posterior/Dorsal’ mean?
Toward the back or posterior surface of the body.
What does ‘Medial’ mean?
Toward the midsagittal plane.
What does ‘Lateral’ mean?
Away from the midsagittal plane.
What does ‘Proximal’ mean?
Toward a reference point or source within the body.
What does ‘Distal’ mean?
Away from a reference point or source within the body.
What does ‘Superficial’ mean?
Near the body surface.
What does ‘Deep’ mean?
Farther into the body and away from the body surface.
What does ‘Cranial/Cephalic’ mean?
Toward the head.
What does ‘Caudal’ mean?
Toward the feet.
What does ‘Rostral’ mean?
Toward the nose.
What does ‘Ipsilateral’ mean?
On the same side.
What does ‘Contralateral’ mean?
On the opposite side.
What does ‘Thenar’ refer to?
The fleshy part of the hand at the base of the thumb.
What does ‘Volar’ refer to?
Pertaining to the palm of the hand, flexor surface of the wrist, or sole of the foot.
What does ‘Palmar’ refer to?
The front or palm of the hand.
What does ‘Plantar’ refer to?
The sole of the foot.
What does ‘Abdominal’ refer to?
The abdomen.
What does ‘Antebrachial’ refer to?
The forearm.
What does ‘Antecubital’ refer to?
The front of the elbow.
What does ‘Axillary’ refer to?
The armpit.
What does ‘Brachial’ refer to?
The upper arm.
What does ‘Buccal’ refer to?
The cheek.
What does ‘Carpal’ refer to?
The wrist.
What does ‘Cephalic’ refer to?
The head.
What does ‘Cervical’ refer to?
The neck.
What does ‘Costal’ refer to?
The ribs.
What does ‘Crural’ refer to?
The leg.
What does ‘Cubital’ refer to?
The posterior surface of the elbow.
What does ‘Cutaneous’ refer to?
The skin.
What does ‘Femoral’ refer to?
The thigh or upper portion of the leg.
What does ‘Flank’ refer to?
The side of the trunk adjoining the lumbar region.
What does ‘Frontal’ refer to?
The forehead.
What does ‘Gluteal’ refer to?
The buttock.
What does ‘Inguinal’ refer to?
The groin.
What does ‘Lumbar’ refer to?
The lower back between the ribs and hips.
What does ‘Occipital’ refer to?
The back of the head.
What does ‘Ophthalmic’ refer to?
The eye.
What does ‘Otic’ refer to?
The ear.
What does ‘Pectoral/Mammary’ refer to?
The upper chest or breast.
What does ‘Pedal’ refer to?
The foot.
What does ‘Pelvic’ refer to?
The pelvis.
What does ‘Perineal’ refer to?
The perineum.
What does ‘Popliteal’ refer to?
The back of the knee.
What does ‘Sacral’ refer to?
The sacrum.
What does ‘Sternal’ refer to?
The sternum.
What does ‘Sural’ refer to?
The calf.
What does ‘Tarsal’ refer to?
The ankle.
What does ‘Thoracic’ refer to?
The chest.
What does ‘Umbilical’ refer to?
The navel.
What does ‘Vertebral’ refer to?
The spine.
What is the External Auditory Meatus (EAM)?
The ear canal opening, used as a landmark for head positioning in radiology.
Where is the Nasion located?
The midpoint between the eyes at the junction of the nasal and frontal bones.
Where is the Acanthion located?
The point where the upper lip and nose meet, used as a reference for facial imaging.
What is the Gonion?
The angle of the mandible, useful for positioning the head in imaging.
What is the Mastoid Tip?
The prominent bony projection behind the ear, part of the temporal bone.
What cervical vertebra corresponds with the Thyroid Cartilage?
C5, an important landmark for airway and neck imaging.
Where is the Vertebral Prominens?
The spinous process of C7, easily palpable at the base of the neck.
What is the Jugular Notch?
The indentation at the superior border of the sternum, corresponding to T2-T3.
What thoracic vertebra corresponds with the Sternal Angle?
T4-T5, where the second rib attaches to the sternum.
What is the Xiphoid Process a landmark for?
The lower border of the sternum, aligning with T10.
What lumbar vertebra corresponds with the Costal Margin?
L3, marking the lower edge of the ribcage.
What vertebral levels correspond with the Umbilicus?
L3-L4, an important landmark in abdominal imaging.
What vertebral level corresponds with the Iliac Crest?
L4, commonly used as a reference point for lumbar punctures.
What is the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) a landmark for?
S1, used in positioning for pelvic and hip imaging.
What structures correspond with the Coccyx?
The symphysis pubis and greater trochanters, useful for positioning in pelvic imaging.
Where is the Aortic Arch located?
2.5 cm below the jugular notch.
At what vertebral level does the Aortic Bifurcation occur?
L4–L5.
Where is the Carotid Bifurcation located?
At the upper border of the thyroid cartilage.
Where does the Common Iliac Vein Bifurcation occur?
At the upper margin of the sacroiliac joint.
Where is the Inferior Mesenteric Artery located?
4 cm above the bifurcation of the abdominal aorta.
At what vertebral level is the Inferior Vena Cava located?
L5.
Where is the Portal Vein located?
Posterior to the pancreatic neck.
Where are the Renal Arteries located?
Anterior to L1, inferior to the superior mesenteric artery.
Where is the Superior Mesenteric Artery located?
2 cm above the transpyloric plane.
At what vertebral level is the Carina located?
T4–T5, at the level of the sternal angle.
Where is the Thyroid Gland located?
At the level of the thyroid cartilage.
Where are the Vocal Cords located?
Midway between the superior and inferior borders of the thyroid cartilage.
Where is the Circle of Willis located?
In the suprasellar cistern.
Where is the Conus Medullaris located?
At T12–L1, sometimes extending to L2.
Where is the Apex of the Heart located?
At the 5th intercostal space, in the left midclavicular line.
Where is the Base of the Heart located?
At the level of the 2nd and 3rd costal cartilages, behind the sternum.
What are the two main body cavities?
The dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity.
Where is the dorsal cavity located, and what does it contain?
It is located posteriorly and contains the cranial cavity (brain) and the spinal cavity (spinal cord).
What is the largest body cavity?
The ventral cavity.
What subdivisions are within the ventral cavity?
The thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
What are the subdivisions of the thoracic cavity?
The pleural cavities (lungs) and the mediastinum (central thoracic region).
What does the mediastinum contain?
The heart, trachea, esophagus, thymus, and major blood vessels.
What organs are found in the pleural cavities?
The lungs.
What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity?
The diaphragm.
What are the subdivisions of the abdominopelvic cavity?
The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.
What organs are found in the abdominal cavity?
The stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys, and parts of the large intestine.
What organs are found in the pelvic cavity?
The urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum, and parts of the large intestine.
Where is the heart located?
In the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity.
Where is the trachea located?
In the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity.
Where is the liver located?
In the abdominal cavity.
Where is the pancreas located?
In the abdominal cavity, behind the stomach.
Where is the spleen located?
In the abdominal cavity, near the left side of the stomach.
Where is the appendix located?
In the pelvic cavity, attached to the cecum of the large intestine.
Where are the lungs located?
In the pleural cavities of the thoracic cavity.
What organs are found in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)?
Right lobe of liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of stomach, small and large intestines.
What organs are found in the Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)?
Left lobe of liver, stomach, tail of pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of large intestines.
What organs are found in the Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)?
Cecum, appendix, portions of small intestine, right ureter, right ovary, right spermatic cord.
What organs are found in the Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)?
Most of small intestine, portions of large intestine, left ureter, left ovary, left spermatic cord.
What are the three groups of abdominal regions?
Superior (Upper), Middle, and Inferior (Lower).
What are the three superior regions of the abdomen?
Right hypochondrium, Epigastrium, Left hypochondrium.
What are the three middle regions of the abdomen?
Right lateral, Umbilical, Left lateral.
What are the three inferior regions of the abdomen?
Right inguinal, Hypogastrium, Left inguinal.
What is the Transpyloric Plane, and where is it located?
A transverse plane found midway between the xiphisternal joint and the umbilicus, passing through L1.
What is the Transtubercular Plane, and where is it located?
A transverse plane that passes through the tubercles on the iliac crests at L5.
What are the two sagittal planes used to divide the abdomen into nine regions?
The midclavicular lines, which run from the midpoint of the clavicle to the midinguinal point.
What are the primary imaging modalities used for cross-sectional anatomy?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT).
What type of energy does MRI use to acquire images?
A strong magnetic field and nonionizing radiofrequency (RF) energy.
What type of energy does CT use to acquire images?
Ionizing radiation.
What is a pixel in medical imaging?
A 2D unit of an image representing a small portion of tissue.
What is a voxel in medical imaging?
A 3D unit of an image that includes depth, representing a specific tissue volume.
What are CT numbers based on?
Hounsfield Units (HU), which measure the attenuating properties or density of tissues.
What CT number is assigned to water?
0 Hounsfield Units (HU).
How do tissues with positive CT numbers appear in a CT scan?
They are denser than water and appear in lighter shades of gray to white.
How do tissues with negative CT numbers appear in a CT scan?
They are less dense than water and appear in darker shades of gray to black.
What does the gray scale in MRI represent?
The tissue relaxation properties of T1, T2, and proton density.
Why do MRI gray scales vary between patients?
Because of inherent tissue properties and variations across a series of images.
What is windowing in digital imaging?
The process of adjusting the gray scale to optimize visualization of specific tissues or lesions.
What does window width (WW) control?
The number of shades of gray in the image.
What does window level (WL) control?
The density of the image or the center of the gray scale.
What is the purpose of multiplanar reformation (MPR)?
It reconstructs images along different planes (sagittal, coronal, axial, or oblique) from a digital data cube.
What are the four planes used in multiplanar reformation (MPR)?
Sagittal, coronal, axial, and oblique.
What is a curved planar reformation (CPR)?
A reconstruction technique that follows an arbitrary curved projection through the image data.
What is the key requirement for MPR and 3D imaging?
Creating a digital data stack from original 2D images, forming a cube of digital information.
What does 3D imaging depend on?
The ability to process and manipulate the digital data cube for enhanced visualization.
What principle do all 3D imaging algorithms use?
Ray tracing, where imaginary rays are sent from a camera viewpoint to process image data.
How does ray tracing work in 3D imaging?
The data are rotated on an arbitrary axis, and rays pass through the data in specific increments to generate an image.
What is Shaded Surface Display (SSD)?
A user-defined threshold is set, and every voxel greater than the threshold is rendered opaque, creating a surface image.
What does SSD (Shaded Surface Display) primarily highlight?
The surface of structures, making it useful for imaging bones and organs.
What is Maximum Intensity Projection (MIP)?
The ray stops at the voxel with the maximum signal intensity, mapping only the brightest voxels into the final image.
What is MIP (Maximum Intensity Projection) best used for?
Imaging high-intensity structures, such as contrast-enhanced blood vessels in angiography.
What is Volume Rendering (VR)?
The contributions of each voxel are summed along the course of the ray, repeating the process to determine each pixel value in the final image.
How does VR (Volume Rendering) differ from SSD and MIP?
VR incorporates all voxels, creating a semi-transparent 3D image that shows both surface and internal structures.
