Chapter 1

Question 1

how research is being used

Answer 1

1- basic research –> motivation is understanding
2- applied research –> motivation is application, adres issues

Question 2

what are the motives for social science research

Answer 2

policy motivations
academic motivations
personal motivations

Question 3

types of social research

Answer 3

description - describe
exploration - what it is to be like ..
explanation - why this happens
evaluation - what can be done about this situation

Question 4

research strategies in SS

Answer 4

deductive research
indecutive research

Question 5

deductive research

Answer 5

Deductive research is a method that starts with a general theory or hypothesis and tests it by gathering specific observations or data. It’s often used to confirm or disprove theories and follows a linear process, moving from the general to the specific.

theory –> hypothesis –> data –> conclusion

Question 6

inductive research

Answer 6

Inductive research is a method that begins with specific observations and works toward broader generalizations and theories. Unlike deductive research, which starts with a hypothesis and tests it, inductive research seeks to generate new theories based on data. Here’s a short overview of the steps:

observations –> pattern –> hypothesis –> theory

Question 7

criteria for good social research questions

Answer 7

feasible
social importance
scientific relevance

Question 8

types of research design

Answer 8

cross-sectional designs
longitudinal designs

Question 9

cross sectional design

Answer 9

single snap shot –> causality is very difficult to established

Question 10

longitudinal design types

Answer 10

repeated observations over a period of time. problem of selective attrition

trend - cohort - panel

Question 11

longitudinal - trend

Answer 11

data are collected at two or more points of time points from different samples of the same population

example: different people aged 20 in 1980 & 1990 & 2000

Question 12

longitudinal - cohort

Answer 12

members of the population doesn’t change new sample taken at each different point in time

example : different people who are 20 - 1980 and 30- 1990 and 40 -2000

Question 13

longitudinal - panel

Answer 13

the same exact sample is used at each point in time

same people in differnet time points ( original version )

Question 14

what are the advantages and limitations of longitudinal study

Answer 14

better at establishing causality as iv and dv s are measured at different times

costs to much and time consuming

Question 15

what are the advantages and limitations of cross sectional study

Answer 15

easy and less costly but causality is hard to establish

Question 16

what is ecological fallacies

Answer 16

when the unit of analysis is groups but the conclusionis done to individuals

Question 17

what is reductionist fallacy

Answer 17

when the unit of analysis is individuals but the conclusions are done based on groups

Question 18

theory

Answer 18

A theory is an explanation of the relationships among phenomena

A generalized explanation of the relationship between two or more variables.

Question 19

Continuous variable

Answer 19

A variable with a unit of measurement that can be subdivided infinitely.

Question 20

Data

Answer 20

Information expressed as numbers.

Question 21

Data reduction

Answer 21

Summarizing many scores with a few statistics.

Question 22

Dependent variable

Answer 22

A variable that is identified as an effect or outcome. The dependent variable is thought to be caused by the independent variable.

Question 23

Descriptive statistics

Answer 23

The branch of statistics concerned with (1) summarizing the distribution of a single variable or (2) measuring the relationship between two or more variables.

Question 24

Discrete variable

Answer 24

A variable with a basic unit of measurement that cannot be subdivided.

Question 25

Hypothesis

Answer 25

A specific statement, derived from a theory, about the relationship between variables

Question 26

Independent variable

Answer 26

A variable that is identified as a cause. The independent variable is thought to cause the dependent variable.

Question 27

Inferential statistics

Answer 27

The branch of statistics concerned with making generalizations from samples to populations.

Question 28

Level of measurement

Answer 28

The mathematical characteristic of a variable and the major criterion for selecting statistical techniques. Variables can be measured at any of three levels, each permitting certain mathematical operations and statistical techniques. The characteristics of the three levels are summarized in Table 1.2.

Question 29

Measures of association

Answer 29

Statistics that summarize the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Question 30

Population

Answer 30

The total collection of all cases in which the researcher is interested.

Question 31

Quantitative research

Answer 31

Research projects that collect data or information in the form of numbers.

Question 32

Research.

Answer 32

Any process of gathering information systematically and carefully to answer questions or test theories. Statistics are useful for research projects that collect numerical information or data.

Question 33

Sample

Answer 33

A carefully chosen subset of a population. In inferential statistics, information is gathered from a sample and then generalized to a population.

Question 34

Statistics

Answer 34

A set of mathematical techniques for organizing and analyzing data.

Question 35

Variable

Answer 35

Any trait that can change values from case to case.

Question 36

conceptualization

Answer 36

coming to an agreement about what the term mean, give definite meaning

Question 37

operationalization

Answer 37

specify precisely how a concpet will be measured

Question 38

levels of measurement

Answer 38

qualitative - nominal and ordinal
quantitative - interval and ratio

Question 39

nominal measurment

Answer 39

categories categories but there is no order between them. Eye color, gender, rank the phone brands

Question 40

ordinal measurement

Answer 40

rated or ordered categories
but there are unequal intervals. Usually
non mathematical ideas such as
happiness and satisfaction.
Ex: 1- strongly agree, 2- disagree, 3-
agree, 4- strongly agree. Time of the day:
night dawn, morning, noon, afternoon,
evening

Question 41

interval

Answer 41

INTERVAL: categories are approximately equally spaced or ordered ( units ).
Numeric properties are taken seriously. Intervals can be calculated and compared meaningfully. ALWAYS NUMERIC

Example: Fahreinheight 70-80 and
90-100. ( the intervals can be interpretable. But the values don’t make sense such as 80 degrees hot isn’t twice as hot as 40 degrees. THe value 0 is ARBITRARY.

Question 42

ratio measurement

Answer 42

equal intervals with a true
zero. Ex: money, height, weight
A true zero point. Mean, mode and
median can be calculated using ratio scale

Question 43

reliability

Answer 43

Reliability: This refers to the consistency or stability of a measurement over time. A research study or measurement tool is reliable if it produces the same results under consistent conditions. Types of reliability include:

Test-Retest Reliability: Checking if the results are consistent over time.
Inter-Rater Reliability: Ensuring different observers or raters provide consistent scores.
Internal Consistency: Verifying that different items within a test measure the same concept.

Question 44

validity

Answer 44

Validity: This indicates how well a test or instrument measures what it’s intended to measure. Validity ensures the accuracy of the results and that they truly represent the phenomenon being studied. Types of validity include:

Construct Validity: The degree to which a test measures the concept it claims to measure.
Content Validity: Ensuring the measurement covers all aspects of the concept.
Criterion Validity: The extent to which a measurement correlates with an outcome or other measures (e.g., concurrent or predictive validity).