chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What does psychology study?
A
psychology students come to understand the complex factors that shape one’s behavior. They appreciate the interaction of our biology, our environment, and our experiences in determining who we are and how we will behave.
2
Q
psychology
A
Scientific study of mind and behavior.
3
Q
empirical scientific method
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acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.
4
Q
behaviorism
A
learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. ivan pavlov studied conditioned reflex; John b. Watson saw study of consciousness as flawed bc it was not objective and wanted to move towards behaviorism; dominated experimental psychology for several decades; B.F. skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment, skinner box or operant conditioning chamber
5
Q
functionalism
A
focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism.
6
Q
humanism
A
perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Some psychologists (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers) objected to the pessimism and determinism (all actions driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They also disliked the reductionism, or simplifying nature, of behaviorism. began to form their own ideas that emphasized personal control, intentionality, and a true predisposition for “good” as important for our self-concept and our behavior.
7
Q
voluntarism
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that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment.
8
Q
introspection
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someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed.
9
Q
personality trait
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consistent pattern of thought and behavior
10
Q
psychoanalytic theory
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focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades
11
Q
structuralism
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established by edward titchener (wundt student); . Its focus was on the contents of mental processes rather than their function
12
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
the first person considered a psychologist. believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection. He believed in the notion of voluntarism
13
Q
Edward Titchener
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student of wundt; Developed structuralism
14
Q
Voluntarism
A
people have free will and should know the intention of psych experiment if participation
15
Q
William james
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helped establish functional psychology. They accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection which leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism.
16
Q
Sigmund freud
A
Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness; created psychoanalytic theory
17
Q
Unconscious mind
A
repository of feelings and urged of which we have no awareness; Accessed through dream analysis, first words that comes to mind
18
Q
Psychoanalytic theory
A
role of unconscious; used in therapy
19
Q
gestalt psychology
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from psychologists who escaped nazi germany (Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler). Emphasized the “whole”; sensory experience can be broken down into small parts but how they interact rates someones perception.
20
Q
Ivan pavlov
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studied learning behavior called conditioned reflex
21
Q
Classical conditioning
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animal/human produces an unconscious reflex to stimulus and was overtime conditioned to respond to different stimulus
22
Q
John b watson
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thought that the study of consciousness was flawed because it cannot be objective. Wanted to shift attention to behavior.
23
Q
B.F. skinner
A
spoke of reinforcement and punishment, skinner box or operant conditioning chamber
24
Q
Operant conditioning chamber
A
(skinner box) - Isolates subject from external environment, has a behavior indicator (lever/button) and when animal presses button positive reinforcement or punishment
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Early 20th cent psych
mainly behaviorism and psychoanalysis
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Humanism
emphasizes potential for good found in humans
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hierarchy of human needs
so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential
28
Abraham maslow
proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior;
29
Carl rogers
client centered therapy: believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what they might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues
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Client-centered therapy
unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy.
31
Why is psychological science important?
It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior.
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Why can’t we use intuition? What is the goal of science?
In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical: It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
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empiricism's relation to psychology
the idea that all learning comes from only experience and observations.
While behavior is observable, the mind is not. psychologists must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.
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deductive reasoning
starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations
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inductive reasoning
uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations
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scientific method
theory, generate hypothesis, collect data, analyze data, summarize data and report findings, then either modify theory or confirm theory.
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theory
well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.
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hypothesis
testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement; bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world.
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falsifiable
capable of being shown to be incorrect. Some theories such as sigmund freuds ideas cannot be falsifiable.
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descriptive research
studies that rely mainly on observation; produce incredible amounts of information but cannot necessarily apply to the larger population
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correlational research
can find a relationship between two variables; the only way to claim that the relationship is cause and effect is through an experiment. While correlational research is invaluable in identifying relationships among variables, a major limitation is the inability to establish causality.
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experimental
a lot of control over variables of interest; often produced in artificial settings which calls into question the validity of experimental findings.
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clinical case studies
focus on one person or just a few individuals;
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clinical case studies pros and cons
The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied. often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Difficult to generalize
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generalize
ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society
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naturalistic observation
observing behavior in its natural setting. It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally;
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naturalistic observation pros and cons
The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. Also observer bias
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observer bias
people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability
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inter-rater reliability
a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers.
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surveys
lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally.
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surveys pros and cons
By using surveys, we can collect information from a larger sample of people. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability. However, given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study. Also, people may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.
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sample
subset of individuals selected from a population, which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.
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archival research
relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships.
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archival research pros and cons
For one, the researcher employing archival research never directly interacts with research participants. Therefore, the investment of time and money to collect data is considerably less with archival research. Additionally, researchers have no control over what information was originally collected. Therefore, research questions have to be tailored so they can be answered within the structure of the existing data sets. There is also no guarantee of consistency between the records from one source to another, which might make comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic
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longitudinal research
research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. Often longitudinal studies are employed when researching various diseases in an effort to understand particular risk factors.
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longitudinal research pros and cons
Given the enormous number of people involved in these studies, researchers can feel confident that their findings can be generalized to the larger population. Attrition rates are quite high.
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attrition rates
reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts
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correlation coefficient
a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r.
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Does correlation = causation?
Correlation does not equal causation. While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest.
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confounding variable
variable that may be the true cause of the effect. Can only find cause and effect through an experiment.
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illusory correlation
false correlations
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confirmation bias
we have a hunch about how something works and then look for evidence to support that hunch, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is false
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random assignment
all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group; makes it unlikely that there are systematic differences between the groups.
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random sample
subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
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experimental group
gets the experimental manipulation
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control group
does not get the experimental manipulation
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single blind study
being blind to which child is in which group, to protect against experimenter biases
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double blind study
both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments
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placebo effect
occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.
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experimenter bias
refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
71
operational definition
precise description of our variables, and it is important in allowing others to understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.
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independent variable
is controlled by experimentors
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dependent variables
changes based on the independent variable
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Institutional Review Board
a committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s administration, scientists, and community members to review proposals for research that involves human participants.
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informed consent
provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research. It also lets participants know that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time.
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deception
purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.
Because of the placebo affect, we may not want participants knowing what we are trying to figure out
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debriefing
complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information about the study; it is used when deception has been used
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WEIRD
western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic
certain populations have been over-studied and the results of these studies have been applied to other populations
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replicate
they can repeat the experiment using different samples to determine reliability. provide more evidence to support the original research findings. Successful replications of published research make scientists more apt to adopt those findings, while repeated failures tend to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the original article and lead scientists to look elsewhere.
80
reliability
the ability to consistently produce a given result
81
chromosomes
are tightly packed strips of DNA
82
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic coding
83
genes
specific parts of DNA that code for specific parts of yourself.
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genotype
is your genetic makeup for a specific gene.
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phenotype
is your physical appearance that resulted from your genetic makeup
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allele
a specific version of a gene
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polygenic
controlled by more than one gene.
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natural selection
organisms that are more fit and well adapted to their environment will have a higher chance of reproducing and carrying those traits to their offspring.
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evolutionary psychology
focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time. Therefore, variations in cognition and behavior would make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing those genes on to their offspring.
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range of reaction
asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall
91
genetic environmental correlation.
Stated simply, our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes
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Epigenetics
looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways. In other words, researchers study how the same genotype can lead to very different phenotypes. The epigenetic perspective is very different from range of reaction, because here the genotype is not fixed and limited.
93
glial cells
traditionally thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically. provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses.
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neurons
serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system.
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axon
a major extension of the some which signals are transmitted electrically across.
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dendrites
branching extensions. Serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons.
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myelin sheath
fatty substance which coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels
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Membrane potential
difference in charge across the membrane is the membrane potential. The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules, and, as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell. In the resting state, sodium (Na + ) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+ ), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell. the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the outside
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action potential
the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. Big enough change to trigger voltage gate to open.
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depolarization
temporary reversal of membrane potential; caused by changes in currents
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sodium potassium pump
three sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions in
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synaptic cleft
a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs.
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neurotransmitters
the chemical messengers of the nervous system. Once neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, they travel across it and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron.
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reuptake
diffusion of neurotransmitters back into the neuron
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refractory period
time after depolarization when neuron is unable to fire an action potential no matter how strong impulse is. This is to prevent signal from traveling both ways.
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nervous system
a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
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central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system
made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body
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somatic system
part of motor division; associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary.
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motor neurons
carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles; part of perhipheral system
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sensory neurons
carrying sensory information to the CNS. part of perhipheral system
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Autonomic system
part of motor division; controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control
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sympathetic nervous system
part of autonomic system; involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities
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parasympathetic nervous system
part of autonomic system; associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations.
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interneuron
within CNS; impulse moves between sensory and motor neurons
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spinal chord
like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes.
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automatic reflexes
sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don’t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.
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cerebrum
make up about 85% of brain weight and oversee abaility to think speak and percieve
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cerebral cortex
covers the brain
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left and right hemispheres
left controls mainly language while right controls creative functions
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contralateral organization
left hemisphere controls right side of body etc
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corpus callosum
connects the two hemispheres
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parietal lobe
behind frontal cortex; sense of touch, body position; contains somatosensory cortex
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somatosensory cortex
in parietal lobe; processes incoming sensations
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neuroplasticity
how the nervous system can change and adapt. Neuroplasticity can occur in a variety of ways including personal experiences, developmental processes, or, as in Woodruff's case, in response to some sort of damage or injury that has occurred. can involve creation of new synapses, pruning of synapses that are no longer used, changes in glial cells, and even the birth of new neurons.
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frontal lobe
behind forehead; speaking; planning; judging; abstract thinking; personality aspects; contains prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, brocas area
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prefrontal cortex
in frontal lobe; planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behaviour.
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motor cortex
in frontal lobe; controls voluntary moevemnts
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broca's area
in frontal lobe; concerned with the production of speech, located in the cortex of the dominant frontal lobe. Damage in this area causes Broca's aphasia, characterized by hesitant and fragmented speech with little grammatical structure.
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temporal lobe
just above ears; process sound and speech comprehension; contains Auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area
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auditory cortex
in temporal lobe; the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates
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wernickes
in temporal lobe; region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech
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occipital lobe
back of brain; information related to sight; contains visual cortex
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visual cortex
the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates, and processes visual information relayed from the retinas.
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thalamus
takes in sensory information for seeing, hearing, touching and tasting
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limbic system
kind of separates the old brain and new brain. Contains hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus
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hippocampus
central to learning and memory; if its damaged you may lose your ability to retain memories
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amygdala
two clusters of neurons; responsible for memory consolidation as well as worst fear or hottest aggression
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hypothalamus
keeps whole body steady; regulating body systems, circadian rhythm, hunger, governs endocrine system - alerting the pituitary gland to release certain hormones to the rest of the endocrine system, the hypothalamus ensures that the internal processes of your body are balanced and working as they should.
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homeostasis
the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems.
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brainstem
central core of the brain where spinal prain enters the skull
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medulla
above the brainstem; old brain functions happen automatically without any conscious effort. Beating of the heart etc.
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pons
perched on the medulla and helps coordinate movement
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reticular formation
inside the brainstem essential for arousal referring to sleeping, walking, pain perceptions etc
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cerebellum
“little brain”; swells from the bottom of the brains stem; responsible for non-verbal learning and memory. The perception of time and modulating emotions; voluntary movement - gets impaired easily from alcohol
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endocrine system
a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones. Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas (diabetes), gonads (sexual hormones)
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hormones
chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. effects of hormones are widespread
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adrenal gland
sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
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pituitary gland
descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body
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EEG
measures electrical activity of brain’s neurons
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PET scan
The PET scan uses a radioactive drug (tracer) to show both normal and abnormal metabolic activity
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MRI
a medical imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and computer-generated radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in your body
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fMRI
measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region also increases.
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consiousness
awareness of self and environment
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selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus or group of stimuli
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inattentional blindness
occurs when one fails to notice a readily visible yet unexpected visual stimulus in one's sight
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change blindness
psychological phenomenon in which we fail to notice changes in our environment
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parallel processing
simultaneously makes sense of different aspects of sensory information
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dual processing
principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and non-conscious tracks
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sleep
a periodic, natural, reversible, and near total loss of consciousness
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pineal gland
releases melatonin indicating sleep time
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stage 1 of sleep
Alpha waves which are similar to awake but relaxed and then waves get more intense and you experience hypnagogic hallucinations
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Hypnagogic hallucinations
brief moments where you feel like your falling and your body startles you
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stage 2 of sleep
Sleep spindles and k-complexes - definitely asleep but can be rapidly awakened
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sleep spindles
burst of rapid brain wave activity
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k-complexes
huge spike in eeg
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stage 3 and 4
Slow delta waves; low frequency, high amplitude
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deep sleep
stage 3 and 4
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REM
rapid eye movement; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
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Why is REM sleep considered “paradoxical”?
Motor cortex is jumping all over the place but the brain stem s blocking those messages which leaves the muscles super relaxed, basically paralyzed except for your eyes.
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Freud thoughts about dreams
proposed that our dreams offer us wish fullfilment; symbolic version of inner conflict; lacks scientific evidence
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Information processing theory
dreams help us sort out and process the days events and fix them into our memories
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Activation synthesis theory
when humans dream, the mind is trying to comprehend the brain activity that is taking place in the brain stem
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Physiological function theory
dreaming may promote neural development and preserve neural pathways by providing the brain with stimulation
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psychoactive drugs
chemical substances that alter your mood and perception
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depressants
alcohol, tranquilizers; mellow slow body functions. Surpress neural activity. Impairs your brains judgement areas, reduces self awareness and self control
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opiods
depressing neural activity and enveloping the brain in no pain. Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine
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stimulants
excite rather than suppress; speed up body functions and self confidence: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines
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hallucinogens
aka psychedelics, distort perceptions, evoke sensory perceptions
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sensation
the bottom-up process by which our senses like vision hearing and smell, receive and relay outside stimuli
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absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation neede to register a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time
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Subliminal stimuli/message
stimuli that you aren't conscious of
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Just noticeable difference
enough change in sensation that you notice a difference. We notice differences on logarithmic scale.
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Signal detection theory
a model for predicting how and when a person will detect a new stimuli, partially based on context
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Sensory adaptation
if you are feeling so much stimulation that you adjust
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Perception
top down way that our brains organize and interpret that information and put it ino context
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Perceptual set
the psychological factors that determine how you percieve
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figure/ground
ground si the background, figure is the focus
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proximity
group nearby figures together
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continuity
smooth continuous patterns
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closure
we will in gaps to create a whole object
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perceptual constancy
continue to recognize an object
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depth perception
estimate depth and shape
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binocular cues
use both eyes to judge distance.
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retinal disparity
compare distance between different images from eyes to perceive depth
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monocular
use cues from one eyes
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relative size
use context to know basic size of one thing compared to another
Interposition
198
Linear perspective
parallel lines appear to meet
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texture gradient
less detailed in distance
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Overlap cue
if something overlaps somethignt hen it is closer
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relative motion
shrinking objects are moving away from you
