Chapitre 2 Flashcards
Variable
Characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one situation to another.
Independent variable
Aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically vary across the different conditons in the experiment. What is manipulated in the experiment.
Dependent variable
Aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is affected by changes in the independent variable. It is what is measured in an experiment. In psychology, it is always some type of behavior. Changes in the dependent variable are dependent upon changes in the independent variable.
In behavioral research
The dependent variable is almost always some behavior and the independent variable is some environmental event or experience that is presumed to influence the behavior.
Functional relationship
Relationships between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable . Can be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in the independent variable being the cause and the changes in the dependent variable being the effect.
Stimulus and response
A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance of behavior.
Stimuli in social interactions
Social interactions consist of a chain of alternating responses, with each person’s response acting as a stimulus for the next response from the other persone.
Overt behavior
Behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. It can publicly be observed if others are present.
Covert behavior
Internal events such as thoughts, feelings and even sensory experiences should be classified as behaviors. They can be referred as private behaviors or private events. Covert behavior is a behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.
Overt and covert relationship
Covert and overt behaviors within the same person can serve as a stimuli for each other.
Appetitive stimulus
Event that an organism will seek out.
Aversive stimulus
Event that an organism will avoid.
Motivating operartions
Any procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event
2 types: establishing and aboloshing
Deprivation and satiation are common types of motivating operations
Establishing operation
Procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
Abolishing operation
Procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
Contiguity
Closeness or nearness.
Temporal contiguity is the extent to which events occur close together in time.
Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.
Contingency
Predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such as the occurence of one event predicts the probable occurence of another.
Recording methods
Depending on how we define a target behavior. there are several ways in which we can go about measuring it.
Rate and response
The frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. Rate measurements are most appropriate when the response is of brief duration, with a well-defined start and finish.
Intensity
The force or magnitude of the behavior
Ex: the amount of saliva produced whenever the tone was presented by itself.
Duration
Length of time that an individual repeadtedly or continuously performs a behavior.
Speed
Length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.
Latency
Lenght of time required for a behavior to begin.
Ex: how soon the dog starts salivating after it hears the tone.
Interval recording
The measure of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of continuous intervals.
Good for not having to record every single response, especially if it a high rate response and difficult to count. Also useful if it is difficult to determine the point at which the target behavior starts and stops.
Time-sample recording
To measure whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of discountinuous intervals (intervals that are spaced apart). The method is very time efficient.
Topography
The physical form of the behavior. How the behavior is executed.
Numbers of errors
Any behavior in which responses can be categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of numbers of errors.
Research design
Method to use to assess the impact of certain variables on that behavior
Descriptive research
Gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within which it occurs. Does not involve the manipulation of any variables.
Naturalistic observation
One systematically observe and record the occurence of a behavior in its natural environment.
Pros: Ideal for studying inherited behavior patterns, it also contributes to our understanding of learning. Also good for gaining rich, detailed information about a behaviour and the circumstances in which it typically occurs.
Cons: Leaves us uncertain as to which variable affect the occurence of the behavior. difficult to determine cause-and-effect
Experimental research
One or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine on a dependent variable. Any differences in behavior across the different conditions of the experiment are presumed to be caused by the differences in the independent variable.
Group designs
One manipulates one or more independent variables across groups of subjects.
In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either and experimental group or a control group. The experimental groupe is then exposed to a certain manipulation or treatment, while the control group isn’t
Factorial design
One examines the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects.
Comparative design
Type of group design un which different species constitute one of the independent variables.
Drawbacks of group designs
Requires a large number of subjects (10 or more per group). Group designs are not well suited for investigating the effect of a certain treatment on a particular individual.
Another problem is that the focus is put on the average performance, and little attention is given to the performances of individual subjects.
Single-subject designs
Require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment
Simple-comparison (AB) design
Behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behaviour in treatment condition.
Self-punishment
Apply an aversive consequence on themselves each time they engage in an unwanted target behavior.
Baseline
Normal frequency of the behavior that occurs before some type of intervention.
Drawbacks with simple-comparison design
Doesn’t control the possibility that some other event occurred at the same time that the treatment was implemented, and was this other event that caused the change in behavior. The single-comparison design doesn’t allow us to access the possibilities and therefor constitutes a poor experimental design.
Reversal design (ABAB)
Consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase. If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is implemented and later withdrawn, then a functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.
Drawbacks of reversal design
If the behavior doesn’t revert to its original baseline level when the treatment is withdrawn, we are left wondering if the treatment was effective.
The design is also inappropriate for the situations in which the treatment is intended to produce long-lasting effects.
It could be ethically inappropriate to remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained.
Multiple-baseline design
A treatment is instituted at successive point in time for two or more persons, settings, or behaviors.
Its better than the reversal design, because we don’t have to worry about withdrawing the treatment to determine that it is effective.
Changing-criterion design
The effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered. The behavior is intended to change gradually, by some specific amount.
Use of animals in behavioral research
Ability to control their genetic makeup and their learning history. Researchers are often able to more strictly control the experimental environment for animal than for humans. Some research cannot ethically be conducted with humains.
Criticism of animal research
The physiological processes, genetic tendencies and learning histories of animals are simply too different for research with animals to be of much relevance to humans. Some also think that it is morally wrong and that animals have rights similar to humans.
