Chapitre 2

Question 1

Variable

Answer 1

Characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one situation to another.

Question 2

Independent variable

Answer 2

Aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically vary across the different conditons in the experiment. What is manipulated in the experiment.

Question 3

Dependent variable

Answer 3

Aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is affected by changes in the independent variable. It is what is measured in an experiment. In psychology, it is always some type of behavior. Changes in the dependent variable are dependent upon changes in the independent variable.

Question 4

In behavioral research

Answer 4

The dependent variable is almost always some behavior and the independent variable is some environmental event or experience that is presumed to influence the behavior.

Question 5

Functional relationship

Answer 5

Relationships between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable . Can be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in the independent variable being the cause and the changes in the dependent variable being the effect.

Question 6

Stimulus and response

Answer 6

A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance of behavior.

Question 7

Stimuli in social interactions

Answer 7

Social interactions consist of a chain of alternating responses, with each person’s response acting as a stimulus for the next response from the other persone.

Question 8

Overt behavior

Answer 8

Behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. It can publicly be observed if others are present.

Question 9

Covert behavior

Answer 9

Internal events such as thoughts, feelings and even sensory experiences should be classified as behaviors. They can be referred as private behaviors or private events. Covert behavior is a behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

Question 10

Overt and covert relationship

Answer 10

Covert and overt behaviors within the same person can serve as a stimuli for each other.

Question 11

Appetitive stimulus

Answer 11

Event that an organism will seek out.

Question 12

Aversive stimulus

Answer 12

Event that an organism will avoid.

Question 13

Motivating operartions

Answer 13

Any procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event

2 types: establishing and aboloshing

Deprivation and satiation are common types of motivating operations

Question 14

Establishing operation

Answer 14

Procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

Question 15

Abolishing operation

Answer 15

Procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

Question 16

Contiguity

Answer 16

Closeness or nearness.
Temporal contiguity is the extent to which events occur close together in time.
Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

Question 17

Contingency

Answer 17

Predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such as the occurence of one event predicts the probable occurence of another.

Question 18

Recording methods

Answer 18

Depending on how we define a target behavior. there are several ways in which we can go about measuring it.

Question 19

Rate and response

Answer 19

The frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. Rate measurements are most appropriate when the response is of brief duration, with a well-defined start and finish.

Question 20

Intensity

Answer 20

The force or magnitude of the behavior

Ex: the amount of saliva produced whenever the tone was presented by itself.

Question 21

Duration

Answer 21

Length of time that an individual repeadtedly or continuously performs a behavior.

Question 22

Speed

Answer 22

Length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.

Question 23

Latency

Answer 23

Lenght of time required for a behavior to begin.

Ex: how soon the dog starts salivating after it hears the tone.

Question 24

Interval recording

Answer 24

The measure of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of continuous intervals.

Good for not having to record every single response, especially if it a high rate response and difficult to count. Also useful if it is difficult to determine the point at which the target behavior starts and stops.

Question 25

Time-sample recording

Answer 25

To measure whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of discountinuous intervals (intervals that are spaced apart). The method is very time efficient.

Question 26

Topography

Answer 26

The physical form of the behavior. How the behavior is executed.

Question 27

Numbers of errors

Answer 27

Any behavior in which responses can be categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of numbers of errors.

Question 28

Research design

Answer 28

Method to use to assess the impact of certain variables on that behavior

Question 29

Descriptive research

Answer 29

Gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within which it occurs. Does not involve the manipulation of any variables.

Question 30

Naturalistic observation

Answer 30

One systematically observe and record the occurence of a behavior in its natural environment.

Pros: Ideal for studying inherited behavior patterns, it also contributes to our understanding of learning. Also good for gaining rich, detailed information about a behaviour and the circumstances in which it typically occurs.

Cons: Leaves us uncertain as to which variable affect the occurence of the behavior. difficult to determine cause-and-effect

Question 31

Experimental research

Answer 31

One or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine on a dependent variable. Any differences in behavior across the different conditions of the experiment are presumed to be caused by the differences in the independent variable.

Question 32

Group designs

Answer 32

One manipulates one or more independent variables across groups of subjects.

In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either and experimental group or a control group. The experimental groupe is then exposed to a certain manipulation or treatment, while the control group isn’t

Question 33

Factorial design

Answer 33

One examines the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects.

Question 34

Comparative design

Answer 34

Type of group design un which different species constitute one of the independent variables.

Question 35

Drawbacks of group designs

Answer 35

Requires a large number of subjects (10 or more per group). Group designs are not well suited for investigating the effect of a certain treatment on a particular individual.
Another problem is that the focus is put on the average performance, and little attention is given to the performances of individual subjects.

Question 36

Single-subject designs

Answer 36

Require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment

Question 37

Simple-comparison (AB) design

Answer 37

Behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behaviour in treatment condition.

Question 38

Self-punishment

Answer 38

Apply an aversive consequence on themselves each time they engage in an unwanted target behavior.

Question 39

Baseline

Answer 39

Normal frequency of the behavior that occurs before some type of intervention.

Question 40

Drawbacks with simple-comparison design

Answer 40

Doesn’t control the possibility that some other event occurred at the same time that the treatment was implemented, and was this other event that caused the change in behavior. The single-comparison design doesn’t allow us to access the possibilities and therefor constitutes a poor experimental design.

Question 41

Reversal design (ABAB)

Answer 41

Consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase. If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is implemented and later withdrawn, then a functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.

Question 42

Drawbacks of reversal design

Answer 42

If the behavior doesn’t revert to its original baseline level when the treatment is withdrawn, we are left wondering if the treatment was effective.
The design is also inappropriate for the situations in which the treatment is intended to produce long-lasting effects.
It could be ethically inappropriate to remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained.

Question 43

Multiple-baseline design

Answer 43

A treatment is instituted at successive point in time for two or more persons, settings, or behaviors.
Its better than the reversal design, because we don’t have to worry about withdrawing the treatment to determine that it is effective.

Question 44

Changing-criterion design

Answer 44

The effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered. The behavior is intended to change gradually, by some specific amount.

Question 45

Use of animals in behavioral research

Answer 45

Ability to control their genetic makeup and their learning history. Researchers are often able to more strictly control the experimental environment for animal than for humans. Some research cannot ethically be conducted with humains.

Question 46

Criticism of animal research

Answer 46

The physiological processes, genetic tendencies and learning histories of animals are simply too different for research with animals to be of much relevance to humans. Some also think that it is morally wrong and that animals have rights similar to humans.