Chaper 2 Alexander II, the ‘Tsar Reformer’ Flashcards
when was the emancipation of the serfs and how many serfs were there at the time
51 million serfs by 1861
who were key pressure groups/factors for the emancipation in 1861
The Milyutin brothers
Alexander II’s brother the Grand Duke Konstantin
the humiliations/inefficiencies of the Crimean war, 1953-1956
how many outbreaks of disorder were there prior to the emancipation in 1861
from 1840-1844 there were <30 outbreaks/year on privately owned estates, but this doubled over the next 15 years
why did outbreaks rise after 1844
landowners pushed peasants to produce more or pay higher rents in order to maintain their own incomes
protests against military conscription during the Crimean War (1853-1856), with Alexander II’s delay to (traditionally) announce the freedom of serfs conscripted to fight after a war increasing tensions
when did state serfs receive their freedom via emancipation
1866
what were redemption payments
payments to the government over 49 years for their land, required to remain in mirs until fully paid
what was temporary obligation
a 2 year period before freedom was granted, whereby allocations were worked out
why was temporary obligation a barrier for the freedom of serfs
~15% of peasants still ‘temporarily obligated’ to landlords until 1881 due to the abolition of serfdom taking longer than expected
why did temporary obligation end by 1881
redemption was made compulsory, due to time lags
what was a critical issue with mirs that prevented agricultural/personal growth for peasants
due to highly traditional methods, in 1878 only 50% of the peasantry could produce a surplus
how many incidents of rioting in the countryside were there in the 4 months after the emancipation
647, due to land-holding and redemption payments
what were Alexander II’s other reforms after the emancipation edict of 1861
Censorship reform (1858-1870)
Education reforms (1863-1864)
Judiciary reforms (1864)
local government reforms (1864-1870)
Military reforms (1874-1875)
what were the censorship reforms (1858-1870)
initial relaxation of press censorship, extended by Nicholas I to all books and newspapers.
# of books published here from 1020 in y1855 to 1836 in y1864 to 10691 by y1894.
however, a growth in crucial writing brought a re-tightening of control in the 1870’s
what were the education reforms (1863-1864)
universities could govern themselves and appoint their own staff
zemstva responsible for schooling rather than the Russian Orthodox Church
primary and secondary education extended
‘open to all’, women could attend non-vocational education from 1870
deemed necessary that after 1866 government control was reasserted due to greater #’s of radical/militant thinkers
what was education growth like as a result of the education reforms (1863-1864)
of children in primary education rose from 400,000 in y1856 to >1million in y1880
# of university students ~tripled by the 1870’s
what were the judiciary reforms (1864)
a new system was made modelling the West:
presumption of innocent until proven guilty and could employ defence lawyers; courts were used (although volost courts dealt exclusively with peasant cases)
courts were open to the public and proceedings could be freely reported
judges appointed by the Tsar and had better training and pay
what were the local government reforms (1864-1870)
Zemstva introduced as a system of elected local councils through ‘electoral colleges’
the zemstva could improve public services, develop industrial projects and give poor relief
extended to towns in 1870 where dumas were set up
the zemstva however had no control over state/local taxes, and their decisions could be overturned by provincial governors
what were the military reforms (1874-1875)
conscription compulsory for all classes, including nobles, from the age of 21, with the length of service reduced from 25-10 years active service and 10 reserve
punishments less severe and military colonies abandoned, along with better provisions and medical care
modern weaponry introduced and a new command structure was established
military colleges set up
mass army-education campaigns in the 1870s-1890s
what was the main reason for the military reforms
the failure and humiliation from the crimean was (1853-1856)
what and when was the Russo-Turkish war
1877-1878, Russia invaded turkey (helping the Balkan states) to recover Crimean losses.
despite victory, it was a narrow victory even after the military reforms of 1874-1875
ended in the treaty of San Stefano
which of Alexander II’s reforms were deemed successful vs unsuccessful (roughly)
Most Successful
- judiciary reforms
- local government reforms
- education reforms
- military reforms
- censorship reforms
Least Successful
(overall a good success but limited in comparison to Europe and ‘counter-reforms’
what were areas of continuity in the 15 years following Alexander II’s accession
- agriculture dominant in Russian economy, its geographical and technological issues remained
- nobles retained much of their dominance
- peasant society changed little due to illiteracy, religious teachings and superstition, as well as heavy taxation and the control of mirs
what were areas of change for Russia after Alexander II’s assession
- emancipation edict (1861) showed a turning point in willingness/direct interest in economic matters
- changed patterns of land ownership, with a more mobile labour force, with substantial grain export increases, helping finance industrial development
- social changes caused by military, educational and even local government and judiciary reforms, empowering a growing group of professionals
