Chap 5, Lesson 4 Flashcards
1
Q
The two major principles in sliding filament theory include the following:
A
A sarcomere shortens as a result of the Z-lines moving closer together (i.e., converging). The Z-lines converge as the result of myosin filaments’ heads attaching to the actin filament’s heads, pulling the actin across the myosin, resulting in the shortening of the muscle fiber.
2
Q
The most essential electrolytes for muscle function include
A
Calcium, potassium, sodium, and water
3
Q
Power stroke
A
The myosin heads bind to actin and pull them toward the sarcomere center, which slides the filaments past each other, shortening the muscle.
4
Q
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A
A high-energy molecule that serves as the main form of energy in the human body; known as the energy currency of the body.
5
Q
The length of a muscle when it is not actively contracting or being stretched.
A
Resting length
6
Q
Muscle fibers that are small in size, generate lower amounts of force, and are more resistant to fatigue
A
Type 1 muscle fibers
7
Q
Muscle fibers that are larger in size, generate higher amounts of force, and are faster to fatigue.
A
Type 2
8
Q
Motor units cannot vary the amount of force they generate; they either contract maximally or not at all.
A
All-or-nothing principle
9
Q
Capillaries
A
The smallest blood vessels and the site of exchange of elements between the blood and the tissues.
10
Q
Type 1
A
More capillaries, mitochondria, and myoglobin
Increased oxygen delivery
Smaller in size
Less force produced
Slow to fatigue
Long-term contractions (stabilization)
“Slow twitch”
11
Q
Type 2
A
Fewer capillaries, mitochondria, and myoglobin
Decreased oxygen delivery
Larger in size
More force produced
Quick to fatigue
Short-term contractions (force and power)
“Fast twitch”
12
Q
What is Epimysium?
A
Inner layer of fascia that directly surrounds an entire muscle
13
Q
Perimysium
A
Connective tissue that surrounds a muscle fascicle
14
Q
Endomysium
A
Connective tissue that wraps around individual muscle fibers within a fascicle
15
Q
Fascia
A
Connective tissue that surrounds muscles and bones
16
Q
Fascicle
A
The largest bundles of fibers within a muscle
17
Q
What are myofibrils?
A
Contractile components of a muscle cell
18
Q
Which of the following refers to the series of steps in muscle contraction?
A
Sliding filament theory
19
Q
Endocrine System
A
“Hormone secreting” - triggers muscle contraction, stimulates protein & fat utilization
20
Q
Lipolysis
A
The breakdown + utilization of fat for energy
21
Q
Enzyme
A
A substance in the body that causes a specific reaction or change.
22
Q
Glands
A
Cells that release substances into the bloodstream (such as hormones) or other surface of the body.
23
Q
Hormone
A
Chemical messenger released from a gland travels to cells to activate a specific function.
24
Q
Target (receptor) cell
A
Cell that receives a message from a hormone or enzyme. Target cells exert an action after being stimulated or activated.
25
Primary Endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, Pineal gland, Pancreas, Thyroid gland, Pituitary gland, Adrenal gland, and Reproductive glands.
26
Hypothalamus
A gland located in the brain that communicates with the pituitary gland.
27
Pineal Gland
A small gland in the brain that secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate sleep cycles.
28
Pancreas
An organ with numerous functions, including the production of insulin, glucagon, and digestive juices.
29
Thyroid gland
An endocrine gland, located in the anterior neck, is responsible for the secretion of many hormones, including thyroxin and calcitonin.
30
Pituitary Gland
An endocrine gland that controls the secretion of many hormones, including growth hormone.
31
Adrenal gland
A gland, located just above the kidneys, responsible for the secretion of catecholamines and cortisol.
32
Reproductive Glands
Glands, such as the ovaries or testes, serve sex-specific functions.
33
Insulin
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that is responsible for glucose metabolism.
34
Glucagon
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose and functions opposite to insulin.
35
Substrates
Intermediate forms of nutrients are used in metabolic reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
36
Glycogen
Glucose is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrates.
37
Growth Hormone
An anabolic hormone produced by the pituitary gland is responsible for growth and development.
38
Catecholamines
Hormones produced by the adrenal glands are part of the stress response known as the fight-or-flight response.
39
Catabolic
Metabolic process that breaks down molecules into smaller units used for energy.
40
Gluconeogenesis
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources (proteins and fats).
41
Overtraining
Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training, results in a reduction of performance, which is also caused by a lack of proper rest and recovery.
42
Testosterone
A hormone producing secondary male sex characteristics.
43
Anabolic
The metabolic process synthesizes smaller molecules into larger units used for building and repairing tissues.
44
Insulin-like growth factors (IGF)
An anabolic hormone is produced by the liver, which is responsible for growth and development.
45
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The amount of energy required to maintain the body at rest.
46
Calcitonin
The thyroid hormone helps the body use calcium properly to aid with maintaining bone mineral density.
47
Glucose Intolerance
A condition that results in elevated blood glucose levels.
48
What gland communicates with and coordinates the activity of the pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
49
What organ is responsible for producing insulin?
Pancreas
50
Which gland produces catecholamines?
Adrenals
51
What gland regulates the sleep cycle and produces melatonin?
Pineal
52
What gland controls the secretion of many hormones, including growth hormone?
Pituitary Gland
53
Which of the following is the primary energy source during vigorous exercise?
Carbohydrates
54
What term is used to describe the amount of energy required to maintain the body at rest?
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
55
3 functional regions of the digestive system
(1) the head & neck, (2) the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract, (3) the lower GI tract
56
Gall bladder
An organ found below the liver, on the right side of the body, receives bile from the liver and secretes it into the duodenum.
57
Liver
An organ in the upper-right abdominal cavity with numerous functions, including the production and secretion of bile, which is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder prior to release into the duodenum.
58
Motility
In the digestive system, refers to movements of the anatomical structures that allow contents to pass through.
59
Mastication
The mechanical process whereby the oral muscles break down food.
60
Peristalsis
The muscle action of the gastrointestinal system pushes food through the body during digestion.
61
Digestion
A multi-step process that describes the passage of food through the body.
62
Absorption
The process of nutrients being absorbed into the body during the digestive process.
63
Esophagus
The anatomical part of the digestive tract that allows food to pass from the oral cavity to the stomach.
64
Ingestion
The act of taking food, liquid, or other substances into the body in preparation for digestion.
65
Chyme
A semifluid mass of digested food is passed from the stomach to the small intestine.
66
Duodenum
Part of the small intestine resides between the stomach and the jejunum.
67
Jejunum
Part of the small intestine resides between the duodenum and the ileum.
68
Ileum
The final section of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the cecum and leads to the large intestine.
69
What term refers to the complex group of anatomical structures that function to break down, process, and absorb the food we eat?
The digestive system
70
The process of nutrients being taken into the body’s cells. The term is used for the passage of already-digested food into the blood system to be processed for energy, nutrients, and tissue building.
Absorption
71
The muscle action of the GI system that pushes food through the body
Peristalsis
72
A multistep process that describes the passage of food through the body
Digestion
73
The process whereby the oral muscles and teeth break down food
Mastication
74
What is the primary function of the large intestine?
Absorption of food and passage of waste into the rectum?
75
What change would lead to an increase in cardiac output during exercise?
Increased heart rate
76
Which type of training would most likely lead to increased levels of testosterone, insulin-like growth factors, and growth hormone?
Overload training that is of a high intensity with limited rest periods
77
What mechanism is responsible for increasing the rate of heart conduction?
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is directly responsible for increasing the rate of heart conduction; whereas, the parasympathetic nervous system would decrease heart conduction when activated.
78
Which of the following hormones have an anabolic function and have been shown to increase up to 48 hours following resistance training?
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
79
What term is used to describe the premise that increased ventricular filling improves contractile force of the heart as a result of greater stretch of cardiac fibers?
80
What training tip would enhance the benefits of resistance training by helping increase growth hormone, testosterone, and epinephrine?
Slowing down the speed of contractions during the eccentric and concentric phases
81
What is end-systolic volume?
The amount of blood remaining in the ventricle after contraction
82
The pancreas secretes which of the following hormones?
Insulin
83
The pathway for hormones secreted by the endocrine system may be described by which of the following?
The gland secretes the hormone, which travels through the bloodstream to reach a target cell, where it binds to a receptor and influences a particular action.
84
Food in the stomach is processed and then passes into what anatomical structure?
Ilieum
85
What is cardiac output?
86
The cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to remove what waste product?
Carbon dioxide
87
Which heart chamber gathers deoxygenated blood returning to the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava veins?
Right ventricle?
88
Which heart chamber receives oxygenated blood and pumps it to the body?
Left ventricle
89
What anatomical heart structure is referred to as "the pacemaker of the heart"?
90
Atrioventricular Node
The atrioventricular node delays the impulse from the sinoatrial node before allowing it to pass to the ventricles.
91
How would age and overall health affect testosterone levels among men?
A reduction in testosterone levels occurs with age, and overall health may affect the degree of change.
92
Where in the heart is the sinoatrial node located?
Right Atrium
93
Which system is comprised of the airways and lungs?
Respiratory
94
Which heart chamber receives deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the lungs?
Right ventricle
95
What is end-systolic volume?
96
Catecholamines are responsible for which of the following actions?
unknown
97
What effect would sleep deprivation have on growth hormone and cortisol levels?
Inadequate sleep will decrease growth hormone and increase cortisol levels.
98
What training tip would enhance the benefits of resistance training by helping increase growth hormone, testosterone, and epinephrine?
Slowing down the contraction time for the concentric phase and speeding up the time for the eccentric phase
99
Which of the following effects of the cardiovascular system occurs during exercise?
Increased ventricular filling
100
Which of the following processes describes the passage of digested food into the blood system to be processed for energy, nutrients, and tissue building?
Absorption
101
What type of vessel is responsible for carrying blood back to the heart?
Veins
102
A Certified Personal Trainer wants to improve a client's outcome expectations for resistance training. What behavior change technique might they use?
103
Human Movement System (HMS)
The collective components and structures that work together to move the body are the muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems.
104
Kinetic chain
A concept that describes the human body as a chain of interdependent links that work together to perform the movement.
105
Regional interdependence model
The concept describes the integrated functioning of multiple body systems or regions of the body.
106
Biomechanics
The science is concerned with the internal and external forces acting on the human body and the effects produced by these forces.
107
Kinesiology
Study of movement as it relates to anatomy and physiology.
108
Anatomic position
The position with the body erect, the arms at the sides, and the palms forward. It is the position of reference for anatomic nomenclature.
109
Anatomical terms
Medial, lateral, contralateral, ipsilateral, anterior, posterior, proximal, distal, inferior, and superior
110
Medial
Midline
111
Lateral
Side to side
112
Contralateral
Opposite leg with opposite hand, for example
113
Ipsilateral
Toe to hand (same side)
114
Superior
Top of head
115
Anterior
In front of the body
116
Posterior
back of the body
117
What concept describes how the function of one segment of the body can impact other areas?
The regional interdependence model
118
Inferior
Below an identified reference point
119
Osteokinematics
Movement of a limb that is visible.
120
A system of 3 imaginary planes
Sagittal, frontal, + transverse
121
Multiplanar
Movement patterns take the body through motions in more than one plane.
122
Arthrokinematics
The description of joint surface movement; consists of three major types: roll, slide, and spin.
123
Sagittal plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into left and right halves.
124
Flexion
A bending movement in which the relative angle between two adjacent segments decreases.
125
Extension
a straightening movement in which the relative angle between two adjacent segments increases
126
Hyperextension
the extension of a joint beyond the normal limit or
range of motion (ROM) and may result in injury.
127
Dorsiflexion
Flexion occurring at the ankle.
128
Plantar flexion
Extension occurring at the ankle. Pointing the foot downwards.
129
Flexion + extension
In many joints in the body, including the spine, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, foot, and hand.
130
Frontal plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into front and back halves. Movement in the frontal plane includes abduction, adduction, and side-to-side motions.
131
Abduction
A movement in the frontal plane AWAY from the midline of the body.
132
Adduction
Movement in the frontal plane back TOWARD the MIDLINE of the body.
133
Lateral flexion
Bending of the spine from SIDE to SIDE.
134
Eversion
A movement in which the inferior calcaneus (heel bone) moves laterally. The bottom of foot faces outward.
135
Inversion
A movement in which the inferior calcaneus (heel bone) moves medially. Bottom of the foot faces inward.
136
Transverse plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into top and bottom halves.
137
Internal rotation
Rotation of a body segment toward the middle of the body.
138
External rotation
Rotation of a body segment away from the middle of the body.
139
Horizontal abduction
Movement of the arm or thigh in the transverse plane from an anterior position to a lateral position.
140
Horizontal adduction
Movement of the arm or thigh in the transverse plane from a lateral position to an anterior position.
141
Radioulnar pronation
Inward rotation of the forearm from a palm-up position to a palm-down position.
142
Radioulnar supination
Outward rotation of the forearm from a palm-down position to a palm-up position.
143
Pronation of the foot
Multi-planar movement of the foot and ankle complex consisting of eversion, dorsiflexion, and ankle abduction; associated with force reduction.
144
Supination of the foot
Multi-planar movement of the foot and ankle complex consisting of inversion, plantar flexion, and ankle adduction; is associated with force production.
145
Gait
The biomechanical motion of the lower extremities during walking, running and sprinting.
146
Pronation of the foot
A multi-planar movement consisting of the combination of eversion, dorsiflexion, + ankle abduction.
147
Supination of the foot
the combination of inversion, plantar flexion, and ankle adduction
148
Gait
(walking and running), the foot and ankle complex moves between pronation during force reduction (when the foot lands) and supination during force production (when the foot pushes off the ground) with every step.
149
Scapular retraction
Adduction of scapulae; shoulder blades move toward the midline.
150
Scapular protraction
Abduction of scapulae; shoulder blades move away from the midline.
151
Scapular depression
Downward (inferior) motion of the scapulae.
152
Scapular elevation
Upward (superior) motion of the scapulae.
153
3 planes (Multi-planar)
Transverse, sagittal, frontal
154
Sagittal plane
Forward, backward + up and down
155
Frontal plane
Side to side movements (abduction + adduction)
156
Transverse plane
Rotational movements
157
Scapular retraction
when the shoulder blades come closer together
158
Scapular protraction
when the shoulder blades move further away from each other
159
Scapular depression
when the shoulder blades move downward
160
Scapular elevation
when the shoulder blades move upward toward the ears
161
Elasticity
The ability of soft tissues to return to resting length after being stretched.
162
Ligament
A fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone.
163
Flexibility
The normal extensibility of soft tissues that allows for full range of motion of a joint.
164
Hypermobility
A state where a lack of neuromuscular support leads to a joint having more range of motion than it should, greatly increasing the risk of injury at that joint. Excessive range of motion (ROM) at a joint.
165
Hypo-mobility
When the range of motion at a joint is limited.
166
What is the imaginary line that bisects the body into right and left sides?
The sagittal plane
167
Plantar flexion
Extension occurring at the ankle
168
Dorsiflexion
Flexion occurring at the ankle
169
Adduction
Movement in the frontal plane back toward the midline of the body
170
Abduction
Movement in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body
171
Eversion
A movement in which the heel bone moves laterally
172
Isotonic
Force is produced, muscle tension is developed, and movement occurs through a given range of motion. Isotonic muscle actions are subdivided into concentric and eccentric muscle actions. Either eccentric or concentric for lowering + lifting phases of resistance training exercises.
173
Isometric
Muscle tension is created without a change in muscle length and no visible movement of the joint.
174
Isokinetic
The speed of movement is fixed, and resistance varies with the force exerted.
It requires sophisticated training equipment often seen in rehabilitation or exercise physiology laboratories.
175
Eccentric muscle action
A muscle action occurs when a muscle develops tension while lengthening. This is when a muscle develops tension while lengthening.
176
Motor Units
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates.
177
Eccentric motion
synonymous with deceleration and can be observed in many movements, such as landing from a jump or lowering weights during a resistance exercise.
178
Eccentric vs. Concentric
Eccentric muscle actions are able to resist more weight than concentric actions. During the eccentric phase, resistance can be lowered more slowly than they are lifted to increase the time under tension for better strength improvements.
179
Concentric muscle action
When the contractile force (force developed within the muscle) is greater than the resistive force, resulting in a visible shortening of the muscle.
180
Isometric muscle action
Occurs when the contractile force is equal to the resistive force, leading to no visible change in the muscle length.
181
Core
Lumbo-pelvic-hip complex (LPHC); (e.g., plank exercise with an isometric contraction of muscles), including the lumbar spine, pelvic girdle, abdomen, and hip joint.
182
Isometric muscle action
When a muscle is exerting a force equal to the force being placed on it leading to no visible change in the muscle length.
183
Concentric muscle action
A muscle action occurs when a muscle is exerting force greater than the resistive force, resulting in a SHORTENING of the muscle.
184
Muscle action spectrum
every exercise consists of an eccentric, isometric, and concentric muscle action to complete one repetition (e.g., dumbbell curl)
185
What are the three overarching types of muscle actions?
Isotonic, isometric, + isokinetic
186
Agonists
muscles that act as the prime movers for a joint motion; in other words, they are the muscles most responsible for generating the primary forces for a particular movement.
187
Synergist
muscles create forces to assist prime movers but are not intended as the primary force producer for a given joint motion.
188
Stabilizer
muscles contract isometrically to support and stabilize the joints, while the prime movers and synergists move through the entire muscle action spectrum to perform a movement.
189
Feed-forward activation
When a muscle is automatically activated in anticipation of a movement.
190
Antagonists
Muscles on the opposite side of a joint are in direct opposition to agonist muscles.
191
Muscles
Movers
192
Muscle functions
Allows for the manipulation of forces placed to on the body to either produce, stabilize, or resist movement.
193
While moving, each muscle is...
an agonist, synergist, stabilizer, or antagonist
194
Agonist example
The Gluteus maximus is the agonist for hip extension; or, and quadriceps are the agonist for knee extension; or, the anterior deltoids are the agonist for shoulder flexion; or, biceps brachii is the agonist for elbow flexion, + triceps brachii UI is the agonist for elbow extension.
195
Closed-chain activities
Weight-bearing. Push-ups, squats, pull-ups, or lunges.
196
Open-chained movements
Distal segments (hands + feet) are not fixed, free to move in space. Exercises include: lat pulldown, biceps curl, bench press, leg curl, + leg extension exercises.
197
Open vs closed chain
Classify exercises with one of these two - muscle recruitment patterns, degree of weight bearing, + the number of joints involved.
198
Closed chain movements
Weight-bearing (mostly), legs fixed on a stable surface. Eg., the push-up is a closed-chain exercise while the hands are fixed on the floor.
199
Distal segments
Hands + feet
200
Open chain movements
Distal segments, i.e., hands + feet are not fixed and are free to move in space
201
Share knowledge
Provide a plethora of knowledge
202
Antagonist
Perform the opposite action of the prime mover
203
Agonists
Muscles that act as the prime movers for a joint motion
204
Stabilizer
Contract isometrically to support and stabilize the joints
205
Synergist
Create forces to assist prime movers but are not intended as the primary force producer
206
The primary characteristic of closed-chain movements is that the distal segments, such as the person's hands or feet, are not fixed and are able to move freely.
FALSE
207
Length-tension relationship
association of the resting length of a muscle & the amount of internal tension it can produce at that resting length.
208
Actin + myosin filaments
Within the sarcomere includes the greatest degree of overlap
209
Force
The interaction between two entities or bodies results in either the acceleration or deceleration of an object.
210
Length-tension relationship
The association between the resting length of a muscle and the amount of internal tension it can produce at that resting length.
211
Within the sarcomeres
Actin + myosin filaments have the greatest degree of overlap
212
Resting length
The length of a muscle when it is not actively contracting or being stretched.
213
Actin
The thin, stringlike, myofilament acts along with myosin to produce a muscular contraction.
214
Myosin
The thick myofilament acts along with actin to produce a muscular contraction.
215
Sarcomere
The structural unit of a myofibril is composed of actin and myosin filaments between two Z-lines.
216
Muscle balance
Length-tension relationships relate closely to this. They will hold that joint in an optimal position for the most efficient movement.
217
Altered length-tension relationship
creates imbalance around the joint, where one side is contracted and pulling more than it should be and the other side is allowed to be pulled into a lengthened state with reduced actin/myosin overlap, putting the joint into a suboptimal resting position
218
Reciprocal inhibition
The nervous system's role in the contract-relax relationship between agonists and antagonists
219
Altered reciprocal inhibition
When an agonist muscle chronically receives an activation signal causing the function antagonist to chronically receive the inhibitory signal.
220
Muscle imbalance
When muscles on each side of a joint have altered length-tension relationships.
221
Neutral position
The optimal resting position of a joint allows it to function efficiently through its entire normal range of motion.
222
Stretch-shortening cycle
A term used to describe a loaded eccentric muscle action that prepares muscles + tendons for a rapid concentric contraction.
223
Series elastic component
The stored energy of muscle + tendon
224
Amortization phase
After energy is stored, the contractile tissue releases this elastic energy during the concentric phase. The storage and release of this elastic energy increase force production if the time between the eccentric and concentric phases is rapid.
The transition from eccentric loading to concentric unloading during the stretch-shortening cycle.
225
Stretch reflex
A rapid amortization phase requires both contractile tissue storage of energy and the neurological
226
Integrated performance paradigm
The more rapidly a client can move through the amortization phase, the more powerful the concentric contraction will be.
227
Stretch-shortening cycle
Loading of a muscle eccentrically to prepare it for a rapid concentric contraction.
228
Series elastic component
Springlike non-contractile component of muscle and tendon that stores elastic energy.
229
Stretch reflex
A neurological signal from the muscle spindle causes a muscle to contract to prevent excessive lengthening.
230
Integrated performance paradigm
To move with efficiency, forces must be dampened (eccentrically), stabilized (isometrically), and then accelerated (concentrically).
231
Tendon
A fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.
232
Force-couple relationship
The synergistic action of multiple muscles working together to produce movement around a joint.
233
Joint support systems
Muscular stabilization systems are located in joints distal of the spine.
234
Deep longitudinal subsystem (DLS)
Muscles of the lower leg, hamstrings, and lower back region
235
Posterior oblique subsystem (POS)
Made up of the latissimus dorsi, thoracolumbar fascia (connective tissue of the lower back), & contralateral gluteus maximus.
236
Sacroiliac joint
A joint between the sacrum + the ilium bones
237
Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)
On the anterior side of the body. Includes, obliques, the adductor (inner) thigh muscles, + hip external rotators.
The AOS and POS work together as a global force-couple in enabling rotational force production in the transverse plane.
238
Lateral subsystem (LS)
made up of the lateral hip (gluteus medius) + medial thigh muscles (adductors) + the contralateral quadratus lumborum - movement in the frontal plane.
239
Torque
a measurement of the amount of force that can cause an object to rotate around an axis.
Relies on the force, the length of the lever arm, and the angle between the force application and the lever arm.
240
Rotary motion
Movement of the bones around the joints.
241
Torque
A force that produces rotation; a common unit of measurement is the Newton meter (Nm).
242
What does the term force refer to?
The ability of one entity to act on another entity, causing acceleration or deceleration
243
Reciprocal Inhibition
When an agonist receives a signal to contract, its functional antagonist also receives an inhibitory signal allowing it to lengthen
244
Altered length-tension relationship
When a muscle’s resting length is too short or too long, reducing the amount of force it can produce
245
Muscle imbalance
When muscles on each side of a joint have altered length-tension relationships
246
Altered reciprocal inhibition
When an overactive agonist muscle decreases the neural drive to its functional antagonist
247
The muscles of the lower leg, hamstrings, and low back region make up which of the following global muscular subsystems?
Deep longitudinal subsystem (DLS)
248
Motor behavior
the HMS response to internal and external environmental stimuli.
249
Motor control
the ability to initiate and correct purposeful controlled movements and involves mechanisms used by the central nervous system to assimilate and integrate sensory information with previous experiences
250
Motor learning
the use of these processes through practice and experience, leading to a relatively permanent change in one’s capacity to produce skilled movements. Anytime a new physical skill is learned and practiced, motor learning is occurring.
251
Motor development
the cumulative changes in motor behavior, over time, throughout the life span
252
Motor control
segmental control is an integrated process involving neural, skeletal, and muscular components to produce appropriate motor responses.
253
Muscle synergies
One of the most important concepts in motor control is that muscles are recruited by the nervous system in groups
254
Motor control
How the central nervous system integrates internal and external sensory information with previous experiences to produce a motor response.
255
Motor learning
Integration of motor control processes through practice and experience, leading to a relatively permanent change in the capacity to produce skilled motor behavior.
256
Motor development
Change in skilled motor behavior over time throughout the life span.
257
Muscle synergies
Groups of muscles that are recruited simultaneously by the central nervous system to provide movement.
258
Squat
Agonists: quadriceps, gluteus maximus
Synergist: hamstrings complex
Stabilizer: transverse abdominis
259
Shoulder press
Agonists: deltoids
Synergist: triceps brachii
Stabilizers: rotator cuff
260
Bench press
Agonist: pectoralis major
Synergists: triceps brachii, anterior deltoid
Stabilizer: rotator cuff
261
Seated row
Agonist: latissimus dorsi
Synergists: posterior deltoid, biceps brachii
Stabilizers: rotator cuff
262
Mechanoreceptors
Collectively feed the nervous system with a form of sensory information known as proprioception.
Specialized structures that respond to mechanical forces (touch and pressure) within tissues and then transmit signals through sensory nerves.
263
Proprioception
Specialized structures that respond to mechanical forces (touch and pressure) within tissues and then transmit signals through sensory nerves.
264
Sensorimotor integration
the ability of the nervous system to gather and interpret sensory information and to select and execute the proper motor response
the nervous system ultimately dictates movement.
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Feedback
the use of sensory information and sensorimotor integration to aid the HMS in developing permanent neural representations of motor patterns.
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2 different forms of feedback
internal (or sensory) feedback and external (or augmented) feedback.
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Internal feedback
the process whereby the body uses sensory information to reactively monitor movement and the environment.
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External feedback
refers to the information provided by an external source, including a Certified Personal Trainer, video recording, mirror, or heart rate monitor, to help supplement internal feedback to produce more efficient motor learning.
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Neuromuscular efficiency
The ability of the nervous system to recruit the correct muscles to produce force, reduce force, and dynamically stabilize the body’s structure in all three planes of motion.
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Motor Development
How skilled motor behavior changes over time throughout the life span
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Motor Control
How the central nervous system integrates internal and external sensory information with previous experiences to produce a motor response
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Motor Behavior
How the human movement system responds to internal and external stimuli
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Motor Learning
How repeated practice and experience of motor control processes lead to a relatively permanent change in skilled motor behavior
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One of the most important concepts in motor control is that muscles are recruited by the nervous system in groups. What are these groups called?
Muscle synergies
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Open versus close chain exercises
Closed-chain are more likely to RECRUIT multiple muscle groups + joints; open-chain movements are more likely to ISOLATE a particular joint or muscle.
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3 planar dimensions
Sagittal, frontal, + transverse
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Osteokinematics
Observable movement of a limb
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Arthrokinematics
The movement taking place at the joint itself
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Sagittal plane
an imaginary line that bisects the body into right and left sides.
Movements in the sagittal plane include flexion and extension and plantar flexion and dorsiflexion of the foot and ankle.
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The frontal plane
Bisects the body to create front and back halves.
Movements in the frontal plane include abduction and adduction of the limbs (relative to the trunk), lateral flexion of the spine, and eversion and inversion at the foot and ankle complex.
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Transverse plane
bisects the body to create upper and lower halves.
Movements in the transverse plane include internal rotation and external rotation for the limbs, right and left rotation for the head and trunk, horizontal abduction and horizontal adduction of the limbs, and radioulnar pronation and supination.
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Motions of the scapulae
include scapular retraction, scapular protraction, scapular depression, and scapular elevation.
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Muscle actions
isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic.
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Isotonic
broken down into concentric and eccentric phases.
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Muscles can play the role of...
agonist, synergist, stabilizer, or antagonist depending on the movement being performed.
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Closed vs Opened Chain movements
Closed-chain movements anchor the body to the ground or immovable object, whereas open-chain movement involves the distal limb moving freely in space.
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Stretch shortening cycle 3 phase proces
the eccentric phase, amortization phase, and concentric phase.
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Global muscle system
the deep longitudinal, posterior oblique, anterior oblique, and lateral subsystems.
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Lever systems
first, second, and third class. Third-class levers are the most predominate levers in the human body.
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Proprioception
the intrinsic awareness of movement and bodily position in space.
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Motor learning
the integration of motor control processes, with practice and experience, leading to a relatively permanent change in the capacity to produce skilled movements.
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Feedback
can come from internal or external sources and aids the process of motor learning.
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Which of the following muscle groups work eccentrically in the sagittal plane during the lowering phase of the squat?
Quadriceps
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Improved performance during a plyometric jump is dependent upon which of the following?
Rapid amortization phase
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Which muscle functions as part of the global muscular system?
Erector spinae. The global muscular system is comprised of larger muscles that initiate movements and tend to function across one or more joints.
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What type of lever could be described as having a fulcrum in the middle like a seesaw?
First Class
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What is the most accurate description of motor control?
The ability to initiate & correct purposeful controlled movements
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What scientific term is used to describe the concept whereby a loaded eccentric contraction prepares the muscles for a rapid concentric contraction?
Stretch Shortening Cycle
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Eccentric Contraction Phase
Lengthening (bending down), - i.e., preparing to jump. Where the tendon is stretched.
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Concentric Contraction Phase
Shortening (jumping up), - i.e., jumping in the air. Tendon recoils back during this phase
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Amortization Phase
Between eccentric + concentric phase. Strength + power + speed
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Static vertical jump
Tip for clients: Throw your arms down faster during the eccentric contraction phase to gain a few inches higher during the amortization phase
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Movements that take place within a joint and are not visible to the human eye may be classified in what way?
Arthrokinematic movements
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Stored energy from an efficiently functioning stretch-shortening cycle is released during which muscle action?
Occurs during the eccentric action & is released during...
Concentric action
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How should an eccentric muscle action be described?
The development of muscle tension during the lengthening of the contractile tissue.
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During a squat, which muscle group isometrically contracts to prevent unnecessary thigh movement in the frontal plane?
Hip Abductors
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Which of the following solutions would allow an individual to achieve a greater depth during the lowering phase of the squat if ankle stiffness is the cause?
This can be addressed through stretching of the plantar flexor muscle and may be accommodated during a squat by placing a small weight or board under the heels.
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - The Body's Energy Currency
Serves as the main form of energy in the human body. How energy is supplied, which energy systems are used during exercise, + how quickly energy can be supplied, + how cells generate ATP.
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Bioenergetics
The study of how energy is transformed through various biochemical reactions.
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Metabolism
All the chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain itself.
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Main sources of chemical energy
Carbohydrates, fats, + protein
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Exercise metabolism
Refers to the examination of bioenergetics as it relates to the unique physiological changes + demands placed on the body during exercise.
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Chemical waste
CO2, H2O
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Metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur in the body maintain themselves.
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First law of Thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only recycled or converted from one form into another. Known as the concept of energy balance.
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Macronutrients
Food substances required in large amounts to supply energy + include protein, carbohydrate, + fat
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Tip: Energy consumed
All of the energy a person consumes is either used to perform bodily functions or stored within the body - often as body fat.
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Per the first law of thermodynamics...
A body's mass increases when it consumes more energy than it uses because that energy must be physically contained within the molecular bonds of carbon-based organic matter.
Simply put, if energy isn't used, it is stored away for later, and there can be no energy stored away for later without the accompanying increase in carbon-based body mass to contain that energy.
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Metabolism converts food + bodily stores
Glycogen + fat to ATP for use, CO2 is formed as the main waste product
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Substrates
Intermediate forms of nutrients are used in metabolic reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
Dietary food provides energy to sustain life + support physical activity, but not directly. It can be broken down by the digestive system into smaller by-products.
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Glucose
The simplest form of carbohydrate is used by the body for energy.
One of the main sources of energy, particularly for brain function + higher intensity activity.
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Glycogen
Glucose is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrates.
Stored in the liver + muscle cells that can be broken down rapidly to provide energy when there is not enough free glucose in the blood.
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Ventilatory Threshold 1 (VT1) (Metabolic marker)
As activity intensity increases, the usage of carbohydrates as an energy source becomes 50%, and the usage of fat becomes 50%.
The point at which the body uses an equal mix of carbohydrates and fat as fuel sources.
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Ventilatory Threshold 2 (VT2)
The point where activity is so intense that glucose is providing virtually all of the energy for the activity, as fats metabolize too slowly to keep up with maximal demands.
The point where glucose provides nearly all of the energy for the activity.
325
Tip: Depleted glucose w/an attempt to switch to fat
If the supplies of glucose and glycogen run out, a person would not be able to continue exercising at a maximal intensity and he or she will have to reduce the effort to a point where fat usage is once again possible, commonly referred to as hitting a wall. This is part of why some athletes use “energy gels” and other carbohydrate supplements during prolonged strenuous training and in competition.
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Fats (lipids)
Two types: saturated + unsaturated fats
Energy source is particularly important during rest and lower-intensity activity
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Triglyceride (free fatty acids)
The chemical (or substrate) form in which most fats exist in food (as well as in the body
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Free fatty acids
In the bloodstream, derived directly from fats contained in foods & are made by the body to store excess energy when more food is consumed than is needed to support activity.
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Amino Acids (Protein)
Long chains of "building block" substances called amino acids
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Essential amino acids (EAA)
9 of 20 amino acids; the body cannot synthesize them on its own + they must be consumed in the diet.
Amino acids must be obtained through the diet as the body does not make them; there are nine essential amino acids.
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Nonessential amino acids
Amino acids can be synthesized by the body and do not, under normal circumstances, need to be obtained in the diet.
They can be synthesized by the body (from consumed carbohydrates or fat substrates) as long as overall nutrition intake is adequate.
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Negative energy balance
When calorie intake is lower than the number of calories expended.
Amino acids are used to assist in energy production & can come from protein that was eaten or from the breakdown of the muscle tissue itself in extreme cases, like starvation or when exercising at extremely high intensities for long periods of time.
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Gluconeogenesis
Before amino acids can be used to make ATP, they are further broken down and then recombined into either glucose through THIS process
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Ketogenesis
The formation of ketone bodies from nonfat sources, such as certain amino acids. Ketone bodies through this process.
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Ketone bodies
Water-soluble molecules are produced in the liver as a result of fatty acid oxidation. They can then be oxidized in the mitochondria to produce adenosine triphosphate.
The name is collectively used to refer to three molecules—acetone, acetoacetic acid, and beta-hydroxybutyric acid—that can be anaerobically metabolized similarly to glucose.
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Ketosis
A state of carbohydrate depletion where the liver manufactures ketone bodies to meet energy demands that free fatty acid oxidation cannot support.
During this metabolic state. Ketone levels can increase in the human body in several ways:
By restricting overall calories to very low levels
By following very low-carbohydrate diets (e.g., ketogenic diet)
By consuming exogenous ketones
When there is a lack of insulin produced (type 1 diabetes) or substantial insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes)
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Nutritional Ketosis
When humans engage in the previous dietary habits 1–3, their ketone levels can increase to approximately 0.5–1.5 millimoles per liter (mmol/L) of blood
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Ketoacidosis
Occurs in diabetic individuals. For most people, ketones make up a small portion of the energy-producing substrates in the human body, even in nutritional ketosis.
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Exogenous ketones
Isolated ketone bodies are usually consumed in supplement form.
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Insulin resistance
The inability of the cells to respond to insulin; occurs in type 2 diabetes.
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Ketoacidosis
Metabolic acidosis is induced by very high levels of ketone bodies such as seen in type 1 diabetes or severe insulin resistance.
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What term refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain itself?
Metabolism
343
Of the 20 amino acids used by the human body, how many are called essential amino acids?
9
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For conversion purposes, how many calories equals 1 pound (about 0.5 kilograms) of body fat?
3,500 calories
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Mechanical Work
The body needs fuel - this is broken down through a series of chemical reactions to provide energy. The only way the new energy enters the earth's ecosystem is from the sun.
NOTE: Plants convert the sun’s energy to food and food provides animals (including humans) with energy to perform cellular and mechanical functions
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ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
The primary energy-providing molecule in the human body. A complex molecule is made up of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a sugar molecule (ribose), + 3 phosphates together.
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ADP - Adenosine Diphosphate
When these chemical bonds are broken, energy from one of the phosphates is released for mechanical work (such as performing muscle contraction), leaving behind another molecule & an extra phosphate group.
348
Phosphorylation - 3 metabolic pathways
ATP-PC System, Glycolytic system (glycolysis), & Oxidative system (oxidative phosphorylation)
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, such as in the transfer of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate creates adenosine triphosphate.
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ATP-PC System
An energy system that provides energy very rapidly, for approximately 10–15 seconds, via anaerobic metabolism.
350
Anaerobic
Processes relating to the absence of oxygen. provides energy for primarily high-intensity, short-duration bouts of activity. This can be seen in strength and power forms of training in which very heavy loads are used with only a few repetitions or during short sprinting efforts.
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Glycolysis
Takes place in the cytoplasm of an animal cell. Anaerobic glycolysis refers to when this process occurs in the absence of oxygen.
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Lactic Acid
As pyruvate accumulates in an anaerobic environment, it is quickly converted to lactate, releasing a free hydrogen ion in the process.
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Oxidative system
A process that uses oxygen to convert food substrates into ATP
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
An aerobic process because it needs oxygen to complete the reactions.
355
3 Substrates in the Oxidative System
Free fatty acids, the pyruvate created during glycolysis, + amino acids that have undergone deamination.
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Mitochondria
The first reaction is called the citric acid cycle (CAC) = Krebs cycle leading to the creation of a few ATP molecules + the waste product of carbon dioxide.
357
Electrons transport chain (ETC)
Electrons are freed for use in the next set of reactions and it uses those electrons to drive a complex series of reactions that create the most ATP.
358
Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
Removes the electrons from this molecule and transports the negatively charged electrons along with positively charged hydrogen ions to the ETC.
Produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates through glycolysis and by the fatty acids through beta-oxidation and is the precursor for these substrates to the citric acid cycle.
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Beta-oxidation
To use fat substrates for aerobic energy production, the fat (e.g., triglycerides) must first be converted into free fatty acids and then further broken down to acetyl CoA in a process.
360
Mitochondria
The parts of the cell that use nutrients to create energy for the cell; are commonly known as the powerhouses of the cell.
361
Beta-oxidation
The first step in the process is to break down fats via oxidative phosphorylation.
362
Ketoacidosis
Metabolic acidosis induced by very high levels of ketone bodies
363
Insulin resistance
The inability of the cells to respond to insulin
364
Exogenous ketones
Isolated ketone bodies usually consumed in supplement form
365
Ketosis
A state of carbohydrate depletion where the liver manufactures ketone bodies to meet energy demands
366
What is the primary energy-providing molecule in the human body?
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
367
What metabolic process that occurs in the cytosol of a cell is responsible for converting glucose into pyruvate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
Glycolysis
368
Steady-state aerobic exercise
Aerobic exercise remains at a relatively constant intensity, including a stable heart rate and oxygen consumption.
Aerobic exercise performed at a constant pace (intensity). steady-state exercise could be described as walking or jogging at a consistent pace for 1 mile.
369
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
The purpose is to produce additional ATP (above & beyond what is needed for recovery) to help reestablish baseline levels of ATP + PC + to assist with clearing metabolic waste products.
370
What term is used to describe the state in which the body’s metabolism is elevated after exercise?
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
371
Any form of exercise can be defined by what two factors?
Intensity + Duration
372
Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE)
The total amount of energy expended in one day.
373
Kilocalorie (kcal)
One food calorie. Also, the amount of energy needed to raise one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.
374
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
The rate at which the body expends energy (calories) when fasting and at complete rest, such as asleep or lying quietly.
375
Exercise activity thermogenesis (EAT)
The calories are expended through structured exercise or training.
376
Thermic effect of food (TEF)
The energy is required to digest, absorb, and process nutrients that are consumed.
377
Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured exercise, such as walking, completing household chores, and taking the stairs.
378
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
the number of calories that the body uses at complete rest to function (e.g., pumping blood, breathing, fueling the brain, and organ functioning).
Simply put, RMR is the minimum energy expenditure (i.e., # of calories needed) to keep a person alive.
This number can vary considerably among individuals, but people with more muscle mass tend to have a higher RMR because muscle is a more active user of ATP than other bodily tissues.
379
Physical Activity Level (PAL)
quantified as the total daily energy expenditure divided by the resting energy expenditure
380
Metabolic Equivalent (MET)
One MET is equal to 3.5 mL of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute (3.5 mL O2/kg per min), which is the average resting metabolic rate for the greater population.
A moderate-intensity activity might require 5 METs (5 times RMR, or 17–18 mL/kg per min), and a very high-intensity activity might require 9 or more METs (9 times RMR or >30 mL/kg per min).
381
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
The rate at which the body expends energy when fasting and at complete rest.
382
Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (EAT)
The calories expended through structured exercise or training
383
Thermic effect of food (TEF)
The energy required to digest, absorb, and process nutrients that are consumed
384
Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured exercise
385
What term is used to describe the number of total calories expended per day divided by the resting metabolic expenditure?
Physical Activity Level (PAL)
386
Second law of thermodynamics
a physical law based on universal experience concerning heat and energy interconversions.
387
Which of the following is a ketone body?
Acetoacetic acid
388
What two factors define any form or type of exercise?
Intensity + duration
389
What is bioenergetics?
The study of the ways in which food is turned into energy
390
Which substrate provides nearly all the energy for activity at and above VT2?
Glucose
391
What are the three pathways through which the body can produce ATP?
The ATP-PC system, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation
392
What are essential amino acids?
Amino acids that must be consumed because they cannot be created by the body
393
What is the definition of energy balance?
When daily food intake is matched to energy needs
394
Which of the following contributes the most to the total calories burned in a day?
Resting metabolic rate
395
Which component contributes the most to total energy expenditure?
Exercise?
396
Which of the following conditions would produce nutritional ketosis in the body?
A very low-carbohydrate diet
