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Chap 4-5 Flashcards

1
Q

Overconfidence bias

A

Tendency to have greater confidence in our judgments & decisions than actual accuracy warrants (experts too)

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2
Q

Dunning-Kruger effect (double-curse of incompetence)

A

Ppl unskilled in domain lack metacognitive ability to realize they r incompetent

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3
Q

Selective attention

A

Act of focusing awareness onto particular aspects of experience, to exclusion of everything else

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4
Q

Snap judgements

A

Rate face on trustworthiness, competence, aggressiveness, likability, & attractiveness

Judgements same whether between 100 & 1000ms , or unlimited time

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5
Q

Dimensions to evaluate faces

A

1) trustworthiness (approach or avoid)

2) dominance (physical strength)

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6
Q

Baby faces

A

Infantile features -> nurturing response

In adults : assumed to be warmer, more honest, naïve, weaker

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7
Q

Thin slices of behaviour

A

Quick judgements similar to judgments made after long time (good prediction of future sometimes)
Eg: personality from look of bedroom

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8
Q

Caveats of snap judgments

A

1) Mixed findings
2) Some traits more accessible than others
3) First impression studies -> aggregates, not individuals
4) Self-fulfilling prophecies (our own behaviour towards someone may in turn influence the way they act towards us, as we expect them to act)

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9
Q

Behavioural Confirmation

A

Own behaviour unknowingly causes the effect we expected to observe

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10
Q

Misleading firsthand info

A

1) self fulfilling prophecies (behavioural confirmation)

Act in ways that don’t reflect true attitudes & beliefs (misleading)
2) impression management
3) attempts to build rapport

4) pluralistic ignorance

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11
Q

Pluralistic Ignorance

A

Ppl act in way that conflicts with private beliefs, cuz falsely think that their own beliefs conflict with beliefs of group (but maybe everyone think the same)

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12
Q

Judgments

A

1) Limited, Incomplete
2) Misleading (first-hand info & second-hand info)
3) Affected by way info is Framed

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13
Q

Framing effects (definition)

A

Way info is presented (strongly influence judgements)

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14
Q

Misleading secondhand info

A

Ppl transmit info in way that furthers personal or ideological agenda (eg: news coverage)

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15
Q

News coverage (misleading secondhand info)

A

1) Emphasis on negative & sensational (if it bleeds it leads)
2) Selective reporting
3) Leading questions (confirmation bias: want to confirm what they want to be true)

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16
Q

Primacy effect (order effect)

A

Initial info presented in body of evidence colours interpretation of subsequent info

-> disproportionate influence on judgement

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17
Q

Recency effect (order effect)

A

Last info presented = better remembered, thus disproportionate influence on judgement

-> more likely when large gap between 2 pieces of info

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18
Q

Gestalt school

A

“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

When trying to make sense of world around us, mind perceive objects as elements of more complex systems, not simply focus on on every small component (eg: white triangle seen in white space between black jagged edges)

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19
Q

Framing effects (types)

A

1) Order effects (primacy & recency effects)

2) Gestalt school (whole>sum of parts)

3) Spin Framing (positive & negative framing)

4) Temporal Framing (Construal-Level Theory)

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20
Q

Construal-Level Theory

A

1) Higher-Level construal:
Abstract terms (psychologically distant actions & events)

2) Lower-Level construal:
Concrete terms (psychologically close at hand actions & events)

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21
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Ppl interpret evidence as to maintain their initial beliefs
1) Scrutinize disconfirming evidence & accepting confirming evidence
2) Confirming evidence: relevant & reliable
Disconfirming evidence: irrelevant & unreliable
3) Remembering strengths of confirming evidence & weaknesses of disconfirming evidence

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22
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Stimulus -> Perception
Data-driven approach

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23
Q

Top-Down processing

A

Pre-existing knowledge -> Perception
Theory-driven approach
Meaning of stimuli actively construed (not passively recorded)

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24
Q

Person Schemas

A

Contain info about specific individuals (appearance, personality, likes, dislikes, behaviours)

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25
Event Schemas & Scripts
Let us how what we can expect in given situation & how we should behave
26
Schemas (examples)
1) Person-schema 2) Self-schema 3) Event schema & scripts
27
Priming (definition)
Exposure to stimuli that activate or bring to mind particular schema (May be done Subliminally: below threshold of awareness)
28
Primes (examples)
1) Words 2) Features of environment 3) Cultural symbols 4) Bodily sensations
29
Critical lures
Representative items of thematic, stereotypical scenes
30
Behavioural priming
Idea that subtle priming of concepts or schemas can influence behaviour BUT replication failures Redemption: 1) Work is ongoing (modest effects, self-relevance of schema, primes with direct vs metaphorical meaning) 2) Artificial lab settings vs real-life
31
Frequent activation & chronic accessibility
Frequent activation of schema -> chronic accessibility More likely to shape perceptions of & interactions with the world 1) Heightened attention to schema-related cues (eg: rejection) 2) Interpretation of ambiguous info as rejection (construal) 3) Behaviours that bring about actual rejection (self-fulfilling prophecy)
32
Intuitive System of thinking (system 1)
1) Quick & automatic 2) Little or no effort 3) No sense of automatic control 4) Carries out operations in parallel (background)
33
Rational System of thinking (System 2)
1) Slower & controlled 2) Based on rules & deduction 3) Subjective experience of agency & concentration 4) Performs operations serially Can step in for intuitive system if not work adequately
34
Automatic Processes (intuitive processing)
1) Deal with adaptive problems 2) Automatize certain behaviours 3) Critical for effective interpersonal judgements (accuracy of thin slice judgement impeded by deliberation)
35
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts, rules of thumb, to make rapid, good enough judgments & decisions
36
Availability Heuristic
More easily recalled, more likely it seems (if examples recalled quickly & easily, must be many of them) Overconfidence bias: think of why smtg true, then seem more true (so do opposite)
37
Biased assessments of risk
Availability heuristic + over-representation negative & sensationalism = skewed assessments of risk
38
Representativeness Heuristic
Tendency to judge likelihood of target being part of larger category based on how typical (representative) it is of category Member of category should resemble category prototype Useful if: prototype valid, members of category cluster around prototype (but might neglect other useful sources of info)
39
Prototype
Typical example of smtg
40
Base-rate information (neglect of)
Info about relative frequency of events or members of diff categories in population Savvy judgments: representativeness + base-rate info
41
Illusory Correlation
Belief that 2 variables are correlated when they are not Result of Availability Heuristic (instances readily available) + Representativeness Heuristic (perception of cause & effect)
42
Causal attribution
Linking event to cause (Inferring that personality trait responsible for behaviour) -predication & control (understanding cause -> prediction of future behaviour, events)
43
Explanatory style
Person’s habitual way of explaining events 3 dimensions: 1) Internal/external (attribution, depends on covariation principle) 2) Stable/unstable 3) Global/specific Pessimistic: negative events as internal, stable, global (undesirable life outcomes) Optimism: better health & life satisfaction outcomes
44
Internal/external explanatory styles
Internal attribution: Cause smtg to do with me External attribution: cause is other ppl, circumstances, smtg in environment
45
Stable/Unstable explanatory styles
Stable: cause long-lasting, permanent, recurring Unstable: cause product of specific & temporary circumstances
46
Global/Specific explanatory styles
Global: Cause generalized to other events, domains of life Specific: Cause specific to this one event
47
Controllability
To what extent have control over the cause of event Predictor of depression Adaptive attributional tendencies -> positive effects
48
Learned Helplessness
State of passive resignation to aversive situation that one come to believe is out of one’s control
49
Gender differences in attributions about controllability
Boys: failure due to lack of effort Girls: failure due to lack of ability Cuz of difference in feedback from teachers
50
Field of Forces (human behaviour)
B=f(P,E) Behaviour (B) is a function of the person (P) & the person’s environment (E)
51
Covariation principle
Behaviour attributed to potential causes that occur at same time (multiple opportunities for observation) Attributions - 3 criteria: 1) Consensus: many others engage in behaviour (No-low consensus-suggests smtg about person) 2) Distinctiveness: behaviours unique to this particular situation (No-low distinctiveness-suggests smtg about person) 3) Consistency: engage in behaviour regularly across time (Yes-high consistency-suggests smtg about person)
52
Dispositional Attributions
Cause Internal to actor: 1) low consensus 2) low distinctiveness 3) high consistency
53
Situational Attributions
Cause external to actor: 1) high consensus 2) high distinctiveness 3) high consistency
54
Discounting Principle
Tendency to assign less weight to cause of behaviour if other potential causes
55
Augmentation principle
Tendency to assign greater weight to cause of behaviour if other potential causes that would normally produce diff outcome
56
Self-serving attributional bias
Inclination to make situational attributions for failures but dispositional attributions for successes (maintain positive self-image, but problems in relationships & work)
57
Self-Presentation advantage
Those with social power initiate, steer conversations, & select situations Others overestimate their knowledge, intelligence, skill
58
Errors & Biases in attribution
1) Self-serving attributional bias 2) Fundamental attribution error (neglect environments role in cause of behaviour of person -only disposition) 3) Self-presentation avantage
59
Causes of FAE
1) Motivational influences (Just-world hypothesis) 2) Perceptual Salience: causes more salient more likely to be seen as potential causes of observed effects (ppl more salient than features of environment) 3) Automatic vs Effortful Cognition: Dual-process model (thinking fast vs slow) - rapidly, automatically characterize ppls based on behaviour, only after consciously ponder situation, adjust initial inference (if sufficient mental resources)
60
Just-world hypothesis
Belief that ppl get wat they deserve in life & deserve what they get
61
Salience
More likely to capture our attention
62
Culture & Causal Attribution
Independent cultures (western Europe, present & former nations of British commonwealth): 1) Personal agency 2) See others & selves in terms of personal goals, attributes, preferences Interdependent cultures (east & South Asia, Middle East, Eastern Europe, Latin America): 1) connection to others 2) see others & selves in terms of social roles, obligations to other ppl & institutions
63
Actor-Observer Difference
Degree to which oriented towards person vs situation depends on actor (engaged in action yourself) or observer (just observing someone else) Actor: more interested in situation (situational attributions) Observer: more interested in person ur dealing with (dispositional attributions)
64
Actor-Observer diff (causes)
1) Interpret question differently (considering who u r, why chose psych?) 2) Perceptual Salience (person draws more attention than environment) 3) Different access to info -Intentions (self: known, others: not) -Typicality (better position to know if behaviour distinctive)

Social Psychology (2 decks)

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