Chap#32: Overview of animal diversity Flashcards
What are animals?
Multicellular, heterotrophicm, eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers
How do animals differ from plants or fungi?
Nutritional mode: Animals cannot construct their own organic molecules so injest them (eating).
Animals lack cell walls. Animals are abundant in collagen
Cleavage
A series of mitotic divisions where the volume of the egg cytoplasm is divided into numerous smaller, nucleated cells.
Blastula
A hallow sphere of cells (blasotmeres) created via repeated cleavage during the development of a fertilized egg.
Gastrulation
The process where a gastrula forms from a blastula. The cells start to form on the inside of the embryo.
*3 weeks into human development
Reproduction steps in animals
1) Haploid egg and haploid sperm form to create a diploid zygote.
2) Diploid zygote undergoes process called “cleavage” which leads to a “blastula” a hollow multicellular sphere.
3) Gastrulation follows when an infolding happens on the blastula.
4) boom bam an animal is formed
What are the 4 things to look for to determine if something is an Animal?
1) How they acquire and assimilate organic nutrients.
2) THe presence of molecules and tissues that are exclusive to animals.
3) Their mode of sexual reproduction.
4) The presence of Hox Genes that dictate their embryonic development.
What is a heterotroph?
CONSUMERS
An organisms that eats other plants of animals for energy and nutrients.
Not able to create their own food.
Examples of Heterotrophs
Animals
Fhungi
Most bacteria
Most protozoa
What is an Autotroph?
PRODUCERS
An organism that can produce their own food and nutrients through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Examples of autotrophs
Algae
Plants
phytoplankton
Some bacteria
What are 2 key innovations in the animal kingdon?
1) Nervous tissues
2) Muscle tissues
In humans what are the 3 digestive cavities?
1) Mouth
2) Stomach
3) Small intestine
Animal cells lack a cell wall, What do we have to make up for that?
Collagen.
Protein exclusive to animals. It forms with minerals to create the skeletpn. Its also the glue that holds muscle tissue to bone.
***Collagen, Muscle and nervous tissue are what allow animals to move about.
What are the layers of a gastrula?
outer to inner.
Ectoderm
Blastocoel (Mesoderm)
Endoderm
Archenteron
What are Hox genes? and how many genes does a single set have?
Genes in control of gastrulation and organogenesis.
One set contains up to 13 genes.
What happened in the cambrian period?
Many kinds of invertabrates and first vertibrates (fishes ect) appeared.
- Animals with collogen, hox genes, muscles and neurons came to light. Collagen allowed for hard body parts (endo and exo skeletons) to form.
*** Most important moment in the history of the evolution of the animal kingom.
What is cephalization?
The process in which sense organs, the mouth, and the nervous system, concentrated towards the anterior side of the body…producing a head.
What does the ectoderm do during embryonic development?
Give rise to nevous tissues, sensory systems and the epidermis of the skin.
What does the endoderm do during embryonic development?
Creates the epithelial cells that line the digestive tract and the accesory organs (pancreas, liver). Also the epithelial linings of the respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts and ducts.
What does the mesoderm do during embryonic development?
Fills the space between inner and outer body wall coverings.
Skeletal and muscular systems.
Circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Excretory and reproductive systems.
Dermis of the skin
What are diploblastic animals?
They only have and endoderm and an ectoderm.
DO NOT CONTAIN A MESODERM.
examples: Ctenophora, Cnidaria
fill in the blank.
All Bilateral animals are_____________.
Triploblastic.
Meaning they contain and endoterm, mesoderm, and ectoderm layers.
What is a Coelom?
Body cavity.
Fluid filled cavity that contains the internal organs.
*protects organs against injury
What is an Acoelomate?
Invertebrates that lack coeloms (fluid filled body cavitites).
eg) flatworms. when they ingest food their body gets distorted
What are the 2 different forms of embryonic development in animals?
Protostomes
Deuterostomes
What are Protostomes?
A form of embryonic development where the first opening in the embryo is the mouth and it comes from the blastopore. *(during gastrulation)
Spiral and Determinent cleavage.
Mesoderm splits into 2 masses.
What are deuterostomes?
A form of embryonic development where the first opening in the embryo is the anus (mouth forms later) and it comes from the blastopore. *(during gastrulation)
Radial and indeterminate cleavage.
Mesoderm pinches off from the endoderm layer.
What are the 4 types of tissues within the animal kingdom?
1) Epithelial
2) Muscle
3) Nervous
4) Connective
What are the different types of epithelial tissues?
Squamous (simple/ stratified).
Cuboidal (simple/stratified).
Columnar (simple/stratified)
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Where would you find simple columnar epithelium?
Lining of the Small intestines.
*Absorbtion
Have dense microvili.
Once absorbed into the cell the food molecules leave through the basal surface of the cell into either the blood circulatory system or the lymphatic system
Where in the body would you find simple squamous epithelium and why?
The lining of the alveoli in lungs.
Gas exchange.
Large surface area means fast rates of diffusion.
O2 goes in and CO2 goes out
Where in the body would you find stratified squamous epithelium and why?
The mouth.
Many layers are good for protection.
What are the 6 types of connective tissue?
1) Loose connective
2) Fibrous connective
3) Bone
4) Blood
5) Cartilage
6) Adipose (fat)
Tell me about loose connective tissue
The Dermis which is located below the epidermis is made up of LCT.
Dermis Function: Support the overlying epithelial tissue aswell as physical and immune defense.
Inside the tissue: (in the matrix) Fat cells, Mast cells, macrophages, reticular fibres, eleastic fibres, collagen fibres, capillaries, lyphocytes
Tell me about fibrous (dense) connective tissue
Mostly made up of collagen.
Serves as anchors for the skeleton.
Muscle to bone = Tendons
Bone to Bone = Ligaments
Tell me about Adipose tissue
Above the muscle but below the dermis.
*Fatty
Store energy in the form of lipids (fat)
Tell me about blood tissue
Carries:
White blood cells (Leukocytes),
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes),
Plasma
Tell me about Bone Tissue
Osteoblast cells produce collagen fibres which are hardened by calcium, phospherous and magnesium.
*highly vascularized (like dermis and adipose)
Tell me about cartilage tissue
Collagen rich tissue produced by Chondrocytes embedded in rubbery matrix.
Function: (Cushions) space between bones like vertebrae. (Flexibility) ears and nose.
**AVASCULAR. no blood vessels
What are the 3 kinds of muscle tissues and their function. (simple)
1) SMOOTH: involuntary body activities (maintains blood flow, opens and closes airways in lungs…ect)
2) CARDIAC: syncronized contractions of the heart.
3) SKELETAL: moves the skeleton.
What does nervous tissue do? simple
Funtion: Recieving, processing, and transmition of information.
2 types of cells. Neurons and Glia
What is homeostatic control?
“Process on maintaining stability of the internal condition”.
Adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.
eg) Temperature, pH, osmolarity, other shit
What is Homeostatic control?
The process of maintaining stability of the internal condition.
What is negative feedback?
the mechanism responsible for mantaining homeostasis
What is positive feedback?
Mechanisms that allow physiological responses to run theircourse to completion.
(eg) child birth, bloof clotting for wounds
What is heat?
The transfer of kinetic energy from one partical to another.
*transfers done via CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, RADIATION
What is conduction?
“The transfer across a stationary medium with a temperature gradient.”
What is convection?
*Free convection: circular movement of air.
&
*Forced convection: Same thing but with an external source. Think wind.
“Convection involved the movement of a fluid”
What is radiation?
Transfer of thermal energy from a hot surface to a cool surface by electromagnetic waves.
*Radiation can travel through empty space
What is an ectotherm?
An animal that relies primarily on its external environment to regulate the temperature of its body.
(eg) Reptile/amphibian
What is an endotherm?
are able to regulate their body temperatures by producing heat within the body.
(eg) birds, humans, polar bears, penguins
Explain how an Iguana goes through conduction, convection and radiation.
Iguana is ectothermic (relies on external environment to heat its body).
Conduction: Iguana lays down on rock thats been in the sun all day. *2 stationary media. (animal and pavement)
Convection: Iguana feels warm breeze.
Radiation: Iguana gets literal heat from the sun.
this is so stupid
What is a homeotherm?
An animal that maintains a constant internal body temperature, usually within a narrow range of temperatures.
(eg) River otter= Thermoregulator (endothermic homeotherm) maintains the same body temperature all the time.
What is a poikilotherm?
An animal that varies its internal body temperature within a wide range of temperatures, usually as a result of variation in the environmental temperature.
(eg) Largemouth bass= Thermal conformers
*Ectotherm. Can tolerate many internal body temperatures
What is the plasma membrane?
Lipid bilayer complosed of phospholipids. Interior side has proteins and phospholipids. Extracellular side has Glycolipids, Glycoproteins, and Carbohydrates
How many amino acids are there in total?
11 can be synthesized.
9 must be supplied by diet. * Essential amino acids
What are the 2 kinds of essential fatty acids we can’t synthesized ourselves?
Omega-3 (linolenic acid)
Omega-6 (linoleic acid)
*Major role= make up the phospholipids of the phosholilid bilayer. (Neurons, cardiac muscle and photoreceptor cells in the retina)
What are 2 essential vitamins?
Riboflavin (component of coenzyme FAD)
Niacin (component of coenzyme NAD+)
Both part of the citric acid cycle.
**without these we would have no energy
What are minerals?
The product of physical and chemical weathering of rocks.
- only essential nutrients that are inorganic
What are the 7 minerals that are essential to animals? (Idk if we need to know this but she didn’t say don’t memorize it like the other list)
Calcium Ca
Phosphorus P
Potassium K
Chlorine Cl
Sodium N
Magnesium MG
Iron Fe
What are electrolytes?
Minerals that function in fluid balance and nerve impulse transmission
Porifera (sponges) have no _________ ______.
Digestive system.
*All 14 other phyla have 1 or 2 openings for digestion and elimination
Sponges digest food _________.
Intracellulary.
They have no cavity for it.
which digestive organ do annelids and birds share?
Gizzard.
thick muscular tissue that helps grind down food.
contain small stones to help pulverize.
what is chewed food referred as?
bolus
what is the pathway of food in a mammals?
oral cavity (mechanical digestion=teeth, and skeletal muscle, and tongue)
*accesoryglands. salavary. have enzymes that help start to physically breaking down food.
now the bolus(chewed food) goes down the esophagus and into the stomach.
how do sponges digest food?
intracellulary.
beating flagella moves currents of water in through pores and out through the osculum.
suspended within the water are food particles, they move through the collar of choanocytes.
food particles get ingulfed via phagocytosis and travel down the choanocyte to the other end where amoebocytes can distribute them to cells that need the food within the sponge.
What does the gastrovascular cavity do?
ingestion,
digestion,
absorbtion,
elimination
*lined with epithelial cells,
1) digestive enzymes are released from gland cells.
2) food particles are broken down by enzymes.
3) food particles are engulfed and digested in food vacuoles.
what is saliva and what is its purpose?
vicous substance made of water salt and glycoprotiens. It lubricates food and protects lining of the mouth. also includes salivary amylase which breaks down large starch molecules and turns it into simple sugar molecules.
what pushes food down intothe stomach.
involuntary smooth muscle contractions called peristalsis
how many layers of smooth muscledoes the stomach have and why?
3 layers. all overlapping in different directions.
peristalsis continues as “rythmic involuntary contractions” and the stomach churns the bolus in a bath of hydrochloric acid.
Which epithelial tissue lines the interior of the stomach and why?
Simple columnar epithelium.
within the cells are pits called gastric glands. (secrete substances via ducts into the stomach to further chemical digestion)
mucous cells (within the glands) secrete mucous to protect the epithelial cells.
Cheif cells within the glands too.
Parietal cells are in the glands aswell (they are the source of the hydrogen and chloride for the stomach acid)
What do cheif cells do?
Found in the glands of the stomach. Secrete pepsinogen. with the drop in the stomach pH the pepsiongen turns into Pepsin (active enzyme that turns protiens into smaller polypeptides.)
What does bolus turn into?
Chyme
Pathway of chyme after the stomach
enters the first segment of the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter of the somach.
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
iliocecal sphincter
What up with the inside of the small intestines.
fingerlike projections called villi like the small intestines. each villi is made up of simple columnar epithelium that are covered with microvilli.
*major surface area for absorbtion to happen
Charbohydrate digestion breakdown
Polysacharides (starch, glycogen) & Disacharides (sucrose and lacose)
Broken down by salavary amylase into smaller polysacharides and maltose.
Pancreatic amylase breaks the polysacharides down into disacherides.
disacharides down into monosacharides.
protein digestion breakdown
proteins into pepsin,
pepsin into small polypeptides,
Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin break them down into smaller polypeptides
into amino acids
fat digestion breakdwon
fat (trglycerides)
meat pancreatic lipase
turn glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides.
when was the cambrian explosion?
roughly 530 million years ago
What is diffusion?
The net movement of molecules moving from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
Acheived by random collision of molecules up against eachother.greater the temperature the greater the diffusion.
Where does gas exchange happen?
Lungs / gills
Where are nutrients absorbed?
the gut
What in the body disposes waste?
kidneys
What is bulk flow?
The movement of fluid from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
The pressure gradient is established by an external mode of force.
(eg) pressure exerted on the fluid in a syringe is generated by the muscle work in the fingers. the pressure would cause the fluid to exit the syringe, without it the fluid would stay inside the syringe
Do nematodes have a circulatory system?
nope.
What are the two main groups that have open circulatory systems?
Arthropods (insects, lobsters, crabs)
Molluscs (mussels, clams)
How do open circulatory systems work?
A fluid, called hemolymph, flows through open-ended vessels and the tiny hearts generate the pressure gradient.
When the hearts contract, the pressure inside the vessels increases and the fluid is pushed out and into sinuses within the body.
As the heart relaxes, the pressure in the vessels drops and the hemolymph is pulled back in through pores equipped with oneway valves. The contracting hearts therefore keep the fluid in motion, constantly washing over internal organs.
how does a closed circulatory system work?
BLood is the fluid. Confined within vessels.
Hearts make pressure gradient to obtain blood flow.
(eg) Cephalopods, annilids, veribrates in cordate phylum
Pathway of blood once it leaves the aorta?
Aorta
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
Vena Cava
What is systolic pressure?
The pressure of blood against the artery walls when the heart has jsut finished contracting.
*120 mm Hg (mercury)
What is diastolic pressure?
it measures the pressure your blood is pushing against your artery walls while the heart muscle rests between beats.
*80 mm Hg (mercury)
Caused by the elastic recoiling of the arteries.
What is “friction” in terms of ther cardiovascular system?
Peripheral resistance.
As the arteries constrict, the resistance increases and as they dilate, resistance decreases.
What is the no slip condition?
When a fluid flows over a solid the flow felocity of the fluid at the surface of the solid is 0. thin sheet of fluid that is not moving.
What is the gradient region?
the region before the maximum flow of fluid. the more viscous the fluid the thicker the gradient region.
What do precapillary sphincters do?
control blood flow to capillary beds, ensuring that only 5-10% of the bodies blood capillaries recieve blood at any given time.
What happens when precapillary sphincters contract?
The blood goes directly to the venule and bybasses the capillary bed.
How does blood make its way back to the heart?
Smooth muscle around veins. Contracting Skeletal muscle.
One way valves in the veins to prevent back flow.
What valves do you find in the heart?
Atrioventricular valves between the atriums and ventricles. Semilunar valves in the aorta and venacava.
Tell me about the nodes in the heart.
Sinoatrial node.
Atrioventricular node.
responsible for generating the electrical impulses that cause the atriums and ventricals to contract.
What are the 3 stages of the cardiac cycle?
1) Atrial and Ventricular diastole. (0.4 sec) Longest stage. Whole heart is at rest.
2) Atrial systole and ventricular diastole. (0.1 sec) shortest stage. Atria contract filling up ventricals.
3) Atrial diastole and ventricular systole. (0.3 sec). Atria at rest and ventricals contracting.
What is cardiac output?
Heart rate (beats per minutes) x stroke volume (amount of blood pumped out of each ventrical during ventricular systole.
(typical cardiac output) 5460 ml/minute
What is a typical cardiac output?
5460 ml/minute
What is blood composed of?
Its a connective tissue containing plasma (liquid extracellular matrix that carries dissolved substances and cellular elements).
55% plasma. 45% cellular elements.
What is plasma?
liquid extracellular matrix that carries dissolved substances and cellular elements.
Water, ions (blood electrolytes) sodium, patassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate.
plasma protiens ( fibrinogen, albumin, immunoglobulins, antibodies)
other nutrients, fatty acids, vitamins, wastes, glucose.
respiratory gasses, O2 and CO2, and hormones
What is the 45% cellular elements in blood conposed of?
Leukocytes (WBC) :Basophills, lymphocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes. FOR DEFENCE AND IMMUNITY
Platelets (BLOOD CLOTTING)
Erythrocytes (RBC): (O2 and CO2 TRANSPORT)
What is Fick’s Law?
Measures the rate of diffusion of molecules across a barrier.
the movement (flux) of mass (molecules) due to diffusion is based on the concentration of the substances and the area that the substance has to pass through.
What is surfactant?
a complex mixture of specific lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, which is produced in the lungs by type II alveolar epithelial cells.
lowering surface tension at the air–liquid interface and thus preventing alveolar collapse at end-expiration.
The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are lined which which epithelium?
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
They secrete mucus and function to bring debris and pathogens up to the pharynx to be swallowed.
What cells in the aveoli help protect the squamous epithium from debris and pathogens?
Alveolar macrophages.
They patrol the reagion and engolf the pathogens. They move up the mucus escalator to the pharynx where they are swallowed.
Pressure is inversly proportional to_______
Volume
The volume occupied by a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to ______
Temperature.
if temperature increases so does the volume
Points of gas exchange. tell me the pathway of O2
1)Inhaled air: Alveolar spaces.
2) Alveolar capillaries: to polumary veins.
3) Systemic artiers: to systemic capillaries of the heart.
4) NOW CO2. in the tissues. Systemic veins, pulmonary arteries.
5) Blood entering alveolar capillaries. to alveolar epithelial cells.
6) Exhaled air. CO2 out.
Where to cells in the adaptive immune system develope and mature.
Bone marrow and thymus
What are the two types of immunte system?
Innate (general)
Adaptive (specialized)
Which cells are part of the innate immune system?
Dendritic cells
Macrophages
Mast cells
Natural killer T cells
Neutrophil
Basophil
Eosinophil
Which cells are part of the adaptive (specialized) immune system?
Natural killer T cells
B cells
T cells ( CD4, CD8)
Antibodies
