Chap 12

Question 1

Motor Skills

Answer 1

Essential ingredient for ALL types of learned behaviors.

Question 2

Much of the early research on motor skill learning had a behavioral character.

Answer 2

True

Question 3

Discrete motor skills

Answer 3

They are completed shortly after they have begun.

Question 4

Continuous motor skills

Answer 4

They extend for an indefinitely long period of time.

Question 5

Continuous movements = closed loop movements

Answer 5

The individual continually receives and can react to feedback about wether the movement is proceeding correctly.

Question 6

Discrete movements = open loop movements

Answer 6

The fact that once the movement begins, it is too late to make any corrections.

Question 7

The reasons motor-skill researchers study these unusual tasks is because they represent a wide range of everyday movements and they are selected to be as simple as possible so that unnecessary complexities will not make the results difficult to interpret and the researcher can witness the acquisition of a new motor skill.

Answer 7

True

Question 8

Thorndike experiment

Answer 8

• Line met criteria = right
• Line not met = Wrong
• Participants with reinforcement showed increase in accuracy over trials.
• Law of effect is just as important in human motor learning as it was for his animals in the puzzle box.

Question 9

Trowbridge + Cason

Answer 9

Argued that although saying “right” after a response might serve as a reinforcer, in Thorndikes experiment, it was important because it gave the participant information or feedback about the accuracy of each response.

Question 10

Knowledge of results

Answer 10

KR

Question 11

Trowbridge + Cason Experiment

Answer 11

• 4 groups =
• No KR group
  *Qualitative KR group (right, and wrong).
• Quantitative KR group ( told direction and magnitude of each error)
• Irrelevant KR group (useless feedback)
• No Kr and Irrelevant KR groups showed no improvement
• Qualitative KR had clear improvement.
• Performance of the Quantitive KR group was vastly superior to that of the Qualitative KR group.
• Conclude that information, not reinforcement was the crucial factor.

Question 12

If quantitative KR is given after every trial the learner may actually become to reliant on this constant feedback and may be less skillful when they need to perform without feedback.

Answer 12

True

Question 13

Those who received the intermittent feedback performed better on later tests without feedback

Answer 13

True

Question 14

Guidance Hypothesis

Answer 14

According to this, KR provides information that helps the person learn the new motor skill.

Question 15

In tasks where the individual usually receives continuous immediate feedback, even small delays in this feedback can produced marked deterioration in performance.

Answer 15

True

Question 16

Smith found

Answer 16

Performance worsened as delays in feedback got longer

Question 17

Delaying KR has little or no detrimental effect on tasks where the learner normally gets KR only after the movement is over.

Answer 17

True

Question 18

When participants were given delayed KR, they relied on types of intrinsic feedback such as their hand positions and the estimated duration of their movement.

Answer 18

True

Question 19

Knowledge of Performance

Answer 19

• KP

*EX: coach may discuss various details related to the athletes take- off, approach, pole placement, ascent, limb positions, and the like = each piece of information might help to improve the athletes future performance.

Question 20

Hatze experiment

Answer 20

• Stand in front of target, raise right foot, and kick target as fast as possible.
• First 120 trials = quantitative KR
• After these, participant was shown a video of performance being compares to a stick figure performing the response the best possible way.
• After shown this, participant immediately began a new phase of improvement.

Question 21

Kernodle and Carlton Experiement

Answer 21

• 4 groups throw with non dominant hand
• Kp plus instructions group shows the greatest improvement.

Question 22

Although quantitative KR can be quite helpful in learning a motor skill, more elaborate types of feedback can produce even greater improvements in performance.

Answer 22

True

Question 23

Distributed practice is better than massed practice.

Answer 23

True

Question 24

Both direct practice and observational learning are necessary to develop the motor components of the task.

Answer 24

True

Question 25

Positive transfer

Answer 25

Practice in 1 task aids the acquisition of a similar task.

Question 26

Negative transfer

Answer 26

Practice on one task interferes with the acquisition of a similar task in other situations.

Question 27

It has proven to be quite difficult to find experimental evidence for negative transfer in motor-skill tasks.

Answer 27

True

Question 28

We could speculate that negative transfer is most likely to be observed when 2 tasks demand antagonistic or incompatible responses to a similar situation.

Question 29

Wegner Ironic Errors Theory

Answer 29

States that people have a tendency to make a false movements that they are trying hard to avoid, especially if their attention is distracted by some competing task.

Question 30

Adams Two stage theory

Answer 30

1. perceptual trace: when a person beings to learn a new motor skill, the perceptual trace is weak or nonexistent.
2. Motor trace: In addition to learning what it feels like to produce the correct movement, a person must also learn to coordinate his or her muscles so that the movement is indeed produced.

Question 31

Adams’s Theory: two stages in the learning of a typical motor skill

Answer 31

1. Verbal-motor stage: This stage improvement depends on the delivery of feedback, usually in a verbal form.The learner does not have an accurate perceptual trace and therefor cannot discriminate a good trial from a bad one. Improvement depends on constant feedback from instructor.
2. Motor stage: The individual can rely on an internal perceptual trace to judge the accuracy of a movement in the absences of external KR.

Question 32

Adams Theory Predicts

Answer 32

In the first stage of motor learning, if participants receive KR only intermittently, the perceptual trace will be strengthen on trials when KR is delivered, but it will tend to decay on trials without the KR.

Question 33

Sparrow and Summers found

Answer 33

That KR is essential when a new motor skill is first being learned

Question 34

Bilodeau and Schumsky

Answer 34

Found that KR can become unnecessary later in training.

Question 35

Newell found

Answer 35

That the perceptual trace can get much stronger if participants receive more trials with KR.

Question 36

These results, which provide support for the guidance hypothesis theory can be interpreted using Adams’s theory as follows

Answer 36

1. Participants who received less frequent or delayed KR presumably had more of an opportunity to develop accurate perceptual traces as external KR was frequently unavailable.
2. Participants who received KR on ever trial had it too easy

Question 37

Limitation of Adams’s Theory

Answer 37

• Limited to the acquisition of single, repetitive, movements.

Question 38

Schmidts Schema theory

Answer 38

• two types of learning take place
• people do not retain information about specific past movements and their consequences but rather that they develop what I will call perceptual schemas and motor schemas.

Question 39

Motor shemas

Answer 39

May consist of more than s ingle function, because other situational variables can affect the outcome of the particular movement.

Question 40

Schmidts theory states

Answer 40

That besides developing such a motor schema, learners also develop perceptual schemas that allow them to use sensory feedback to predict wether the appropriate movement was produced.

Question 41

Chamberlin and Magill found

Answer 41

support for the prediction of schema theory that people can learn a general rule for movement and not just individual movement patterns.

Question 42

Important Prediction of Schmidts theory

Answer 42

Variability in ones practice routine is beneficial, because it contributes to the development of the learners perceptual and motor schemas.

Question 43

Kerr and Booth suggested

Answer 43

that the variable training helped the children develop stronger schemas than did the specific training.

Question 44

Shea snd Wulf concluded

Answer 44

1. One of schemas strengths is its prediction that variable practice can be more effective than constant practice, and idea that has received substantial empirical support.
2. Some research findings pose problems for schema theory.
   * To summarize: Perhaps the fairest way to summarize Schimts theory is to say that it represents an important advance, but as the science of motor-skill learning advances, new and more refined theories will almost surely be developed.

Question 45

Battigs Theory

Answer 45

High contextual interference during acquisition ultimately leads to better long-term performance.

Question 46

Blocked practice

Answer 46

Learner practices the same variation of a skill for a block of trials, then switches to a different variation for another block of trials and so on.

Question 47

Random Practice

Answer 47

The task requirements are changed every trial

Question 48

Variable practice is better than specific practice, and random practice is better than blocked practice.

Answer 48

True
But studies have found no differences in long-term performance.

Question 49

The responses chain analysis of movement sequences is compatible with theories such as Adams and Schmidts, evidence suggests that it cannot account for all examples of behavioral sequences.

Answer 49

True

Question 50

Those who favor the concept of motor programs suggest that the response chain approach is incorrect because some movement sequences do not depend on continual sensory feedback.

Answer 50

True

Question 51

Karl Lashley advocate of motor programs

Answer 51

• argued that human reaction times are too slow to support the idea that sensory feedback can serve as the stimulus for the next response in a rapid sequence.
• Argued that skilled movements and sequences of movements are still possible for individuals who have lost sensory feedback.
• Argument concerns the types of errors frequently found in rapid movement sequences such as typing.

Question 52

4th type of error unknown to lashley

Answer 52

The amount of time needed to begin a sequence of movements depends on the number of separate movements that are a part of the sequence.

Question 53

Recent studies have suggested that human reaction times can be faster than previously believed.

Answer 53

True

Question 54

Generalized motor program

Answer 54

• A motor program may include the neural mechanisms that both send a series of commands in a specified sequence and have the ability to adjust the exact movements that are part of that sequence to suit the current circumstances.
• A motor program that can be adapted to a variety of different situations is called a generalized motor program.

Question 55

Shapiro, Zernicke, Gregor, anf Diestel found evidence

Answer 55

that supports generalized motor programs.

Question 55

Dynamic Pattern Theory

Answer 55

Proponents do not believe that the ability of people to perform rapid and adaptable sequences of movements necessarily means that the movements are controlled by a generalized motor program.

Question 56

Dynamic Pattern Theory

Answer 56

• Those who favor this argue that the evidence for relative time invariance in movement sequences could be the result of physical properties of the body such as the length and weight of ones limbs and flexibility.
• Emphasizes the important role of feedback from the body and the environment during the sequence.