Chap 1- Molecules and Fundamentals of Bio Flashcards
- Polysaccharides are long polymers of _______?
- Each polysaccharide contains many______?
- Polysaccharides may or may not have WHAT?
- The role of a polysaccharide depends on the _______ and ___________ it contains.
- What are the two things polysaccharides for?
- This is crucial Storage _______ in what?
- Containing many _____ _______ in linear forms as well as _____ forms.
- Linear _____ _____ is called _____, and it contains ______ bonds.
____ is the branched form of ____, and it contains both _____ bonds and _____ bonds.
- _______ mean “one sugar”
- What is it’s the empirical formula?
- Whenever a linear pentose or hexose sugar converts to a ring structure, it forms a _______ functional group.
- If the ______ points down the sugar is an ____sugar. Conversely, if the _____ up the sugar is known as a _____ sugar.
- Name 3 monosaccharides?
5.ribose, fructose, and glucose (Mono Running, Fracture toe, use glucose)
ribose, fructose, and glucose
- _______are “two sugars”
- These form when _____ _____monomers join together via _______ reactions (also known as ______ reactions).
- Name the 3 _____ and what each cointain?
- _____ is a crucial storage _____ in plants?
- containing many _____ monomers in ____ forms as well as _____ forms.
- _____ plant starch is called ___, and it contains α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
- ______ is the ______ form of plant ___, and it contains both α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and __________ bonds.
- What is significant storage polysaccharide found in _____?
- Does it contain many glucose ___?
- Is it more branched than _____?
- _______ contains α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and a lot of _______?
- It is essentially stored in what 2 places?
- It is broken down to release ____ monosaccharides to cells that need _____.
- ______ is a structural _______ found in plant ___, ___ and ___.
- is a glucose _____?
- What type of bond does it contain?
- Linear strands pack together in ___?
- adjacent strand held together by ____bond.
- ______structural polysaccharide
- it is found in the cell walls of ____, in ____
- ___ has _____ bonds that allow the polysaccharide strands to arrange in ____.
- one of the ______ in each glucose molecule gets replaced by a functional group containing ______.
- ______ is a polymer of _______.
- Define proteome?
- Define Genome?
- .
- a genome is the genetic material of an organism. It consists of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses)
- Just as all the DNA in a cell makes up a ______, all of the _____ in a cell make up a_____.
- It is possible for two different cells in the same organism to have differing _____ based on which _____ are active in each cell.
- All proteins contain polymers called _____.
- Each polypeptide contains monomeric subunits called ______.
- All amino acids have an ____carbon in the ____, which is attached to an _____, _____, and _____ group.
- Just as all the DNA in a cell makes up a genome, all of the proteins in a cell make up a proteome.
- It is possible for two different cells in the same organism to have differing proteomes based on which genes are active in each cell.
- Each amino acid monomer is attached to its neighbor via a special covalent bond called a _____.
- Carbohydrates, amino acids form peptide bonds with each other via _______.
- ______ reactions will separate them.
- A ____bond is called an ____ bond when it involves amino acids. An ___ bond is an amine (NH₂) bonded to a _____ (_____).
- The enzyme that helps peptide bond formation?
- The two broader class it belongs to?
- peptidyl transferases help peptide bond formation
- structure of amino acids, polypeptides have ______.
- We may also refer to these as the ______ (for amino) and ______ (for carboxyl).
- How many levels of protein structure are there? Name them?
- ____ is a sequence of ____(__)
- ______ are folds that occur in a ____ chain due to _____ interactions between atoms of the polypeptide backbone. A _____ is just the amino acid structural features other than the _____. In other words, the secondary structure does not involve ____ atoms.
- The most common type of intermolecular force that leads to secondary protein structure is ____.
- Hydrogen bonds occur between _____ and _____ groups.
- Two of the most common secondary protein structures are ____ and ____..
2-The primary structure is a sequence of a peptide (a.a)
- ______ is the three-dimensional structure of larger _____ chains, which occurs as a result of interactions between ____of the various_____.
- Can create _____ or ______
spaces based on the R-groups. - ______
bonds are created by _____ bonding
between the R-groups of two _____ a.a.’s
(______-_______ bond).
- ____ structure - multiple____chains come together to form one ____.
- Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional structure of larger polypeptide chains, which occurs as a result of interactions between R-groups of the various amino acids.
Protein can be classified based on structure, the 3 structures are?
- _____ occurs whenever a functional protein loses its higher __ ___structures. In other words, _____ causes proteins to lose their ____, ___, and ____ structures (if they have them). But ____ proteins retain their ____ structure; however, the loss of ___ leads to a loss of ___ function.
- This can occur by factors like ____,____,____,___.
- Protein denaturation occurs whenever a functional protein loses its higher order structures. In other words, denaturation causes proteins to lose their secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures (if they have them). Note that denatured proteins retain their primary structure; however, the loss of shape leads to a loss of protein function.
- Protein denaturation can occur by excess temperature, chemicals, pH changes, and radiation, to name a few.
Name these?
- ______are molecules that increase _____ rates.
- _____do not affect the ______ of a reaction
- _____ lowers the what ? to _____ the reaction?
- _______is the amount of energy a chemical reaction requires to progress.
- _______ (unstable ____) between reactants and products
- Catalysts are molecules that increase reaction rates. Despite speeding up reactions, catalysts do not affect the spontaneity of a reaction. In other words, they do not change the likelihood that a reaction will take place
- These are biological, globular (usually) _____catalysts that speed up specific ____ and _____ reactions by _____ their activation energies.
- They don’t affect what of a reaction?
- _____only change the energy of the______state, not of the ____ or ______.
- _____ catalyze reactions by _____to reactant molecules, which are called what?
- An ____ active site is where _____ bind.
- most enzymes are proteins, ____ ____ give the active site unique properties and ___ _____.
- An enzyme’s _____ _____measures how _____an enzyme is in converting substrate to _____.
- The ___ ___ ___ describes how the
___ ___ molds itself and changes ____to fit
the substrate when it binds. The outdated
theory was the “____” model.
- One such example of a non-protein enzyme is a _____.
- A _____is a ______ ____(_____) molecule that is capable of acting as an ___by changing the ____ of reactions as they progress from reactants to _____.
- ______ are non-____ molecules that assist enzymes in the reactions they _____.
- _______ are organic cofactors, and these usually include things like _____.
- Inorganic cofactors tend to be ____ _____, such as _____ or _______.
______ refer to enzymes that are bound to their cofactor, whereas an _____ is an enzyme that is _____ (not bound to) its _____. Cofactors that tightly/covalently bind to their enzyme in a ____ are known as _____groups.
Protein enzymes have _____ _____ and __ ____ in which they have the ____ enzymatic activity. ____ and __ can denature protein enzymes if they are too far out of the normal physiological range, resulting in a ___ of ______.
● _____ groups are cofactors that are
_____or _____ bound to their enzymes.
● Protein enzymes are susceptible to
_______. They require optimal
_____ and ____ for function.
One such example of a non-protein enzyme is a _____. A ____ is a ribonucleic acid (___) molecule that is capable of acting as an enzyme by changing the____ of reactions as they progress from ____ to ____.
______ _____ is a form of enzyme regulation, where _____ compete with substrates for ____ sites. As we ____ the amount of substrate, there is a higher chance that the substrate can bind to the ___ site - this is why we can _____ a _____ _____ by adding more ____.
Adding more ____ will only increase the ____ of catalysis until all ___ sites are occupied (___ _____). As saturation begins to occur, adding more ____ will have diminishing returns in increasing the speed – this is when plateau starts to occur.
- An enzyme _____ is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. … Since blocking an enzyme’s activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme _____. They are also used in pesticides.
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. … Since blocking an enzyme’s activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used in pesticides.
_____ ______ is when an inhibitor binds to the ____ site of an ____ – a different location that is not the ___ site of ____ catalysis. An inhibitor binding to the ____ site ___ the active site so that the substrate has ___binding or ____ bind.
It does not matter how much substrate we add. If the active site cannot bind to the substrate when the _____ inhibitor is present, increasing the substrate concentration will___ ___ catalysis. We cannot ___ ____ inhibitors by adding more substrate, which is why they are known as ______ inhibitors. The rate of enzyme catalysis is _____ by increasing the substrate concentration.
Enzyme kinetics plot
- What is velocity (V) of a reaction?
- Vmax is the maximum what?
- [X} represents what concentration?
- Increasing the substrate concentration ___tends to ___ the rate of a reaction until enzymes become ____ with substrate, at which point increases in reaction rate start to level off. The ____ ___(___) is the substrate concentration ___ at which the ___ is 50% of the maximum reaction velocity (___).
A small ___ implies that we only need a___ ___ of ____ because enzyme ability/function is___. On the other hand, a ___ KM implies that we need many ____ for reaction progression because enzyme availability/function is ___.
How would this plot change if we add a competitive vs. a noncompetitive inhibitor?
- competitive inhibitor
- noncompetitive inhibitor
Lipids are ____, non-polar molecules, meaning they do not ___well with water. Most lipids have long _____ (hydrogen bound to carbon) chains; however, there are a few exceptions.
- Lipids contain ___, ___, and ____ atoms, like carbohydrates
A typical lipid molecule many of us are already familiar with is known as ___, which might also go by the name ____ or _____. Triglycerides are found in cells called ____. Fats have two unique parts - a ___ ____and ______.
- ____ is a small, organic alcohol molecule that has three ____ and three ____groups. A fatty acid is a long ____ tail attached to a _____ acid.
Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms (CHO), like carbohydrates. However, they have long hydrocarbon tails, making them very hydrophobic.
- Fats are produced by ______ reactions.
- Triacylglycerol (triglyceride) is a ____ molecule with a ____ backbone (three ____ and three ____ groups) and three fatty acids (___ _____tails). Glycerol and the three fatty acids are connected by ___ linkages
- Fats are produced by dehydration/condensation reactions
If a fatty acid tail has no _____, it is saturated. All carbons in a saturated fatty acid are bound to as many _____ as possible. As a result, saturated fatty acids are ____ and can pack ____. At room temperature, saturated fats are ___ (think of butter).
______ fatty acids can possess one or more double bonds because they do not have full _____ saturation. Monounsaturated fatty acids have one ____. On the other hand, polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more ______.
_____ acids create kinks in the fatty acid chain because the _____ associated with the _____ remains on the same side. The kinks caused by _____ make it difficult for ____acids to pack together tightly. As a result, _______fats tend to be liquid at room temperature (think about olive oil).
Trans-unsaturated fatty acids have ______ that go to _____ sides of the double bond, which makes them pack together _____. In nature, trans-unsaturated fats are rare.
_____ are a unique type of lipid (fat) found in cell _____. Each _____has a three-carbon ____ _____ attached to one ____ group and ___ ___ acid tails. ____ are a classic example of an _______ molecule because their phosphate group is ____ and _____, while the fatty acids are nonpolar and ____. ______ molecules contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts.
DAT Pro-Tip: another type of lipid molecule (called a ____) looks virtually the same as a _____; however, these contain a ______ molecule in place of the phosphate group.
Because _____ are amphipathic, they _____ self-assemble into a ___ when in an aqueous environment. Both the ____ (outside a cell) and _____ (inside a cell) environments are _____; therefore, cell membranes form through self-assembly of _____.
_____ is also a lipid molecule that is a component of the cell membranes and is
_____. It is the most common precursor to ____ hormones (lipids that have four
hydrocarbon rings). Cholesterol is also the starting material for ____ and ____ acids.
Factors that influence membrane fluidity:
- ______ - ↑ ____ increase fluidity
while ↓ ______ decrease it. - _____ - holds membrane together at
____ temperatures and keeps membrane ____
at ____ temperatures. - ___ _____ ___ - ____fatty
acids pack more tightly than _____ fatty
acids, which have _____ bonds that may
introduce kinks.
____ _____ have a low density of proteins. They are generally considered to be ____because they deliver cholesterol to ___ ____ via the bloodstream. In this way, they can deposit cholesterol in the heart and major ____ vessels, leading to atherosclerotic blockages and ___disease. LDLs are the “____” ______.
____ ______ (have a high density of proteins. They are generally considered to be ____because they take cholesterol away from ____ tissues and deliver it to the____. Once at the ___, the cholesterol can be used to make___ acids, which aid in fat absorption as was mentioned above. ___ are the “___” cholesterol.
Some other lipid derivatives to remember for the DAT include waxes and carotenoids
_____ contain long fatty acids that are connected to _____alcohols by ____ linkages. _____ alcohols are molecules that contain just one _____ group. ____ are often a ____ protective coating.
_____ are long fatty acid carbon chains that have conjugated ____ bonds and ___-membered rings at each end. ____ function as _____ that provide color to plants and animals.
____ ____contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and _____ atoms (____). They contain ____ monomers that build into DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) polymer
_____ have a pentose (five-carbon) sugar attached to a _____ base. A _____ is a pentose sugar attached to a nitrogenous base and a single ____ group. Nucleic acids are polymers made of _______. When we have more than one phosphate group, we call the molecule a _______ di- or _______.
- Deoxyribose sugars (in DNA) contain a _____ at the 2’ ____ while ribose ____-carbon sugars (in RNA) contain a ____ group at the 2’ _____.
- _____(A), ____ (T), cytosine (C), and _____(G) are the nucleotides in DNA. The ______replaces T in RNA.
________ bonds connect the phosphate group of one nucleotide (at the __carbon) to the _____group of another nucleotide (at the __’ carbon). A series of ____ bonds create the _____ backbone, with a __’ end (free phosphate) and a 3’ end (free hydroxyl). _____ _____ proceeds as nucleoside triphosphates are added to the ___’ end of the sugar-phosphate backbone.
DNA is an ______ double helix, in which two _______ strands with _____ directionalities (positioning of __’ ends and __’ ends) twist around each other. Furthermore, A can only H-bond to ___ (two hydrogen bonds) and G can only __-bond to __ (three hydrogen bonds). RNA is ____stranded after being copied from ___ during ____. In RNA, U binds to A___, replacing ___.
Modern cell theory:
- All lifeforms have ___ or more ____.
- The ____is the basic ____, ____, and
_____unit of life. - All cells come from other ___(___division).
- Genetic information is ___and ____ down
through ____. - An organism’s activity is dependent on the____
____of its i_____ cells. - ____ and ____ (energy flow)
occurs within ____, - All cells have the same _____composition
within ____of similar _____.
The central dogma of genetics states that information is passed from ____ → ____ → ____. There are a few exceptions (eg. ____ ______and _____).
The RNA world hypothesis states that RNA _____ Earth’s ____ ____ before there was ____. ___ developed self-_____
_____ and later could ____ reactions such as protein ____to make more complex ______. Since RNA is ____ and
_____, DNA later became a better way of ____ _____ genetic information.
