Changes to roles and relationships between parents and children

Question 1

how are children seen in western societies?

Answer 1

• most people take for granted the idea that children are different from adults
• in most western societies, children are considered underdeveloped immature vulnerable and in need of special protection
• many sociologists have argues that the idea of childhood as a separate phase of life when a child should be separated from adults is very much a modern invention and is still not accepted in many societies around the world
• children can therefore be seen as a social construction as something that is created by societies attitudes and the assumptions we make about children in our culture

Question 2

what are cross cultural and historical differences in childhood?

Answer 2

• in the UK today, the social status of childhood extends well beyond the age when most children reach physical maturity
• many sociologists would argue that we have extended childhood far longer than most other societies in history
• for example Stone (1990) argues that up until the 18th century children were regarded as extra workers to help their parents or to be hired out for wages by poorer families
• in richer families, sons were there to inherit titles and property and daughters to be married off in order to create useful alliances with other powerful families
• it I=has only been in modern times that the notion that children need to be loved and protected has emerged

Question 3

what is the emergence of modern childhood?

Answer 3

• many sociologists and historians argue that it has only been in modern times and in western societies that children have become separated from the adult world
• for example children have been excluded from the world of work and confined to educational institutions
• there are also specific foods, clothes and leisure activities aimed at children
• families have become more child centred
• instead of children being regarded as there to serve the needs of abuts families revolve around children’s needs
• a far greater proportion of family income is now spent on children to the extent that many parents will take considerable sacrifices for their children’s welfare
• partners, especially fathers, also spend more time in actively parenting children than they did in the past

Question 4

how do smaller families contribute to childhood?

Answer 4

-more love, attention and financial resources can be lavished on each individual child

Question 5

how do shorter working hours contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 5

-parents especially father have more time to spend with their children

Question 6

how does greater affluence contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 6

-improved living standards and higher wages mean that there is more disposable income to spend on children

Question 7

how does the extension of education contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 7

• education only became compulsory in England in the 1880s, before that many working class children were sent out to work from an early age
• since then the school leaving age has risen from 10 to 16 and young people are now obliged by law to continue some kind of education until 18
• this extends the period of children being dependent on parents for much longer and also further separated children from the adult word

Question 8

how do social policies contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 8

• successive governments have given even greater emphasis to child welfare
• this can be seen in the range of benefits designed to assist parents in maintaining and caring for children
• it can also be seen in greater emphasis on child protection, as is evident in the willingness of social workers to remove children from families where they are abused or neglected

Question 9

how do children’s rights contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 9

• the UNs rights of the child (1989) extended the idea of human rights to suggest that children had specific rights in addition to those of adults
• in the UK the 1989 and 2004 children acts established legal rights for children in the UK
• for example in divorce cases, courts must give priority to the needs and wishes of children in making decisions about where they will live and access to each parent

Question 10

how do child experts contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 10

• since the 19th century, a range of medical, psychological and educational experts have put forward scientific theories about how children should be brought up
• children are no longer seen as a skill that parents must learn
• parents are increasingly turning to childcare books written by such specialists as well as websites where they can exchange ideas and experiences with other parents
• there are also TV programmes such as super nanny which offers role models and guidance to parents

Question 11

how do concerns about children contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 11

• parents have become much more concerned about threats to children due to risks of accidents but also because of fears about stranger danger and paedophiles
• some sociologists such as Furedi (2001) have argued that this is largely a moral panic encouraged by the media and that parents fears are largely unjustified
• however one consequence is that children have become more closely unsupervised by parents and are less likely to have the freedom to play outside without restrictions
• Cunningham (2007) suggests that the home habit of typical eight year olds has shrunk to one ninth of its previous size in the last 25 years

Question 12

how do children as consumers contribute to a child-centred childhood?

Answer 12

• big businesses has created a consumer a consumer market targeted at children
• not only toys and games but also foods, clothes and leisure activities aimed at children have become more important
• children play a big roles in families spending decisions, using pester power to encourage parents to buy them sweets, toys, computer games and mobile phones
• according to an article in the telegraph parents spend around £460 a year on average on things they do not need after giving in to the pestering of their children
• sweets, snacks and junk food were among the most popular items with four in ten pestering their parents for treats

Question 13

what are power relations between parents and children?

Answer 13

• it can be argued that the balance of power between parents and children has shifted
• families have become more democratic not only in relationships between women and men, but also in relationships between parents and children
• for example, children have more rights and are given greater protection by law
• children have also become the centre of family life, having more money spent on them than ever before

Question 14

how does age patriarchy suggest that children are not equal to adults?

Answer 14

• children are still financially dependent on parents as they cannot enter full time work until at least 16 and usually do not earn adult wage until even later
• while the law offers rights and protection to children, it also gives parents authority over their children, for example parents are giving the responsibility for ensuring their children attend school
• children can be seen to have more influence over decision making in families, such as moving house or separating from one another with little reference to their children
• many children also suffer abuse at the hands of family members or other adults

Question 15

what does Palmer (2007) say about age patriarchy?

Answer 15

-Palmer says that many children now experience what she calls toxic childhood because children are being damaged by a diet of junk food, excessive exposure to computer fames and a lack of love or discipline from parents forced to work long hours outside the home

Question 16

what does Radford et al (2011) say about say about child abuse and neglect in the UK today?

Answer 16

• an NSPCC survey on 6,000 children found:
• children can experience a range of forms of abuse, including physical, emotional and sexual abuse, as well as neglect of their basic needs such as adequate food, clothing and warmth

Question 17

how does social class impact diversity in childhood experiences?

Answer 17

• according to government statistics, there are 3.5 million children living in poverty in the UK today
• according to Margo and Dixon (2006) wealthier parents often spend considerable mounts of their income on activities such as dance or music lessons for their children to attend or other clubs like scouts
• poorer children are likely to have a much more restricted range of activities and may be forced to take part time jobs to pay for the things they want

Question 18

how does gender impact diversity in childhood experiences?

Answer 18

• childhood like other areas of society, remains heavily gendered
• parents still tend to socialise children very differently in terms of gender such as the toys that children are given, expectations about girls and boys contribution to household chores and the greater protectiveness and restriction on freedom that many parents show towards girls compared to boys

Question 19

how does Bhatti (1999) say ethnicity impacts diversity in childhood experiences?

Answer 19

• Bhatti observed that Asian children are generally more strictly brought up than most other ethnic groups
• in most Asian families there is a strong emphasis on izzat or family honour and bad behaviour by children is seen as reflecting on the whole family
• Asian girls in particular are likely to become more closely supervised by parents and brothers

Question 20

how does Barn (2006) say ethnicity impacts diversity in childhood experiences?

Answer 20

• according to Barn black, Pakistani and Bangladeshi families in the UK are also likely to be associated with low incomes, unemployment and poor housing, which often leads to difficulties in raising children
• however among all minority ethnic groups, extended families appear to be an important source of support

Question 21

what does Chambers (2012) say about changes in parenting?

Answer 21

• Chambers ideas about good parenting began to change in the period after the 1970s for two reasons: firstly the growth of employment of women with children and secondly, the rise in divorce rates
• she suggests that this has led to a good deal of public debate about parenting
• however, at the same time roles of men and women in two parent families remain strongly gendered, meaning that couples often still fall into traditional roles as mothers and fathers

Question 22

what does McCarthy et al (2003) say about motherhood?

Answer 22

• McCarthy et al argue that women still feel that they need to conform to traditional norms about what constitutes a good mother and this includes making sure that children also receive good fathering
• mothers are still perceived as the ones who have the ultimate responsibility for emotionally stabilising families and keeping the whole family together
• when families do break up and mothers try to bring children up alone, it is they often branded by the media as scroungers and bad parents

Question 23

what does park (2012) say about motherhood?

Answer 23

• park points out that a significant minority of children are now raised by more than one mother figure
• however, she criticises what she calls the ideology of monomaterialism, the dominant view in society that children can have one real mother

Question 24

how do higher divorce rates affect fatherhood?

Answer 24

• men often have more limited contact with their children following divorce, and sometimes lose contact altogether
• it is estimated that as many as a quarter of divorced fathers have not seen their children in the pervious year and just under half have not paid any child support in the previous year and just under half have not paid any child maintenance in the pervious year

Question 25

how do new concepts of masculinity affect fatherhood?

Answer 25

• some sociologists have referred to the rise of the new man, often seen to be exemplified by celebrities like David Beckham
• new men are seen to be more willing to display their emotions and take and equal responsibility for childcare

Question 26

how do changing patterns of male employment affect fatherhood?

Answer 26

• there has been a decline in jobs involving heavy physical labour in industries such as manufacturing and mining
• as a result in some [arts of the UK there have been high levels of long term male unemployment
• on other instances men have moved into what were traditionally perceived as feminine jobs in the service sector, such as offices and call centres

Question 27

what does Gray (2006) say about fatherhood?

Answer 27

• Gray found that many fathers emphasied the need to spend quality trime with their children
• fathers viewed time spent with their children on outings, sport, play and conversation as expressions of fatherhood rather than as domestic work
• however, many fathers also felt the pressure of long hours at work meant that they were not able to be involved with their children as much as they would have liked

Question 28

what does dermott (2003) say about fatherhood?

Answer 28

-Dermott carried out in depth interviews with 25 fathers and commented on how many of the men insisted that they wanted a closer and more intimate relationships with their children than they had had with their own fathers

Question 29

what dies Sevilla (2014) say about fatherhood?

Answer 29

• sevilla announced the findings of her research based on time budget diaries, showing that fathers spend seven times as much time interacting with their children that their own fathers did with them 40 years ago
• the average is fairly low at 35 minutes a da for working fathers, but is far higher than the 5 minutes registered in 1974
• mothers quality time with their children have also risen over the same period, from 15 minutes a day to an hour
• sevilla did, however, note that well educated middle class parents were much more likely spend time with their children

Question 30

what did Thompson et al (2005) say about fatherhood?

Answer 30

• Thomsons study on 1,200 working fathers of infants aged between 3 and 15 months concluded that new dads are more willing than ever to combine work with staying home looking after the children
• almost 8 out of 10 working fathers revealed that they would be happy to stay at home and look after their baby, while 9 out of 10 felt as confident as their partner when caring for their child
• overall the average amount of leave taken by fathers was slightly more than the statutory paternity leave entitlement - two thirds of fathers take paternity leave
• there is therefore a range of evidence to suggest that important changes are taking place in ideas of fatherhood with many fathers becoming more involved with their children
• however, there is still some way to go before fathers can be said to be taking an equal share in parenting

Question 31

which reasons did Thomson give for the fact that fatherhood is changing?

Answer 31

• fathers still spend considerably less time on parenting than mothers
• there is still considerable diversity in the involvement of fathers as the study carried out by Hatter et al (2002) for the EOC shows
• many fathers are still constrained by long working hours and limited access to parental leave and flexible working, meaning that they may not be able to spend more time on parenting even if they wish to
• high rates of separation and divorce mean that many fathers lose contact with their children or only relatively restricted access to them

Question 32

what does Statham (2011) say about grandparents?

Answer 32

• grandparents care can take many forms, from occasional babysitting through regular help with childcare while parents work, or living with their grandchildren in multigeneration households
• grandparents may also care for grandchildren whose parents are unavle or unwilling to do so

Question 33

what did the HSBC report (2007) say about grandparents?

Answer 33

-A HSBC report costed the amount that parents woild spend on childcare if they did not use grandparents would be £50 billion

Question 34

what did grandparentsplus (2009) say about grandparents?

Answer 34

• according to grandparentsplus grandparents tend to be more flexible
• they are often asked to fill the gaps between formal childcare and parental care
• they will also care for a child who is sick when a nursery would refuse to have them
• nurseries, extended schools and child-minders tend not to work beyond 6pm
• for parents who work shifts or irregular hours, formal childcare simply is not enough
• grandparents also provide an important source of support to parents and grandchildren at times of family breakup

Question 35

which roles did chambers (2013) highlight as issues of grandparents?

Answer 35

• grandparents is still very gendered, with grandmothers generally playing a larger role than grandfathers in line with the gendered nature of other aspects of family life, this would support the feminist view of other aspects of family life
• many grandparents today are still in employment or if retired may have active social lives and are not always able or willing to play an active part in their grandchildren’s lives
• extended families are now often dispersed over geographical distances, meaning that grandparents are not always in position to give regular practical help
• rising rates of divorce relationship breakdown mean that grandparents may lose contact with grandchildren, as most children tend to live with mothers after a family breakup, it is usually parental grandparents who are most affected by this, maternal grandparents are most likely to be involved in offering support to their daughter and grandchildren following separation of divorce

Question 36

how does park suggest contemporary families do not fit traditional views?

Answer 36

• children may be raised by a foster or adoptive mother while also having a biological mother and a step mother if they are part of a reconstituted family
• they may be brought up by two mothers in a same sex relationship
• they may be brought up on a polygamous family, where mothering is shared between two or more views of the same husband