changes in medicine Flashcards
What are the four humours in ancient Greek medicine?
Blood, Phlegm, Yellow bile, Black bile
The theory suggested that an imbalance among these humours affected health.
What is the theory of opposites in relation to the four humours?
The idea that to restore balance, one should consume or engage in activities with opposite qualities to the excess humour
This theory was used to explain illness and treatment.
What is the miasma theory?
Disease is caused by unpleasant smells and harmful fumes in the air
This theory linked disease to unhygienic conditions and was common before germ theory.
What was the spontaneous generation theory?
Claimed that rotting material created maggots, fleas, and disease
This reflected the limited understanding of microorganisms.
How did doctors’ knowledge of the human body affect medical progress?
Understanding was limited due to few dissections and beliefs in afterlife
This led to ethical discussions and reluctance to study human bodies.
What factors hindered medical progress historically?
- Lack of understanding
- Limited technology
- Funding issues
- Negative attitudes towards new techniques
These factors contributed to slow advancements in medicine.
Why did Florence Nightingale go to Scutari?
To work in a military hospital during the Crimean War due to high infection rates among soldiers
She was prompted by the Secretary for War, Sidney Herbert.
Describe the conditions at the Scutari hospital.
- Over 10,000 patients
- Crowded and unsanitary
- Infested with lice and fleas
- Limited medical supplies and poor food
Conditions contributed to high death rates from infections.
What actions did Florence Nightingale take to improve conditions in Scutari?
- Cleaned surfaces
- Improved air flow by opening windows
- Enhanced food quality
- Fundraised for supplies
Her efforts aimed to reduce infection and improve patient care.
What was the impact of Nightingale’s work in Scutari?
Death rates remained high until the government hired a sanitary commission in 1855
This commission led to rapid improvements in health outcomes.
What was the typical training for doctors in the mid-1840s?
Four years of training including lectures, hospital experience, and practical surgery
Training still lacked focus on hygiene and advanced surgical techniques.
What was the problem of pain in surgery before the 1840s?
Patients underwent surgery awake with only alcohol or opium for pain relief
This led to traumatic experiences during operations.
What was the purpose of a tourniquet in surgery?
To reduce blood flow during surgical procedures
This was a common practice before the understanding of sterilization.
Who was William Morton and what was his contribution to anesthesia?
A dentist who experimented with ether gas for anesthesia in 1846
His work allowed for less painful surgeries.
What was James Simpson’s contribution to anesthesia?
Discovered chloroform as a superior anesthetic in 1847
He used it successfully in childbirth and became physician to Queen Victoria.
What were some problems associated with the use of chloroform?
- Caused vomiting
- Could leave patients unconscious for long periods
- Highly flammable
These issues raised concerns about its safety in surgical settings.
What was the black period of surgery?
A time when death rates rose due to infection despite advances in anesthesia
Surgeons still lacked knowledge of hygiene.
What were the living conditions like in industrial towns during the 19th century?
- Poor quality housing
- Overcrowded
- Damp and poorly ventilated
- Shared sanitation facilities
These conditions contributed to the spread of diseases.
What were some killer diseases prevalent in Britain during the 19th century?
- Cholera
- Typhoid fever
- Typhus
Vaccination for smallpox existed but was not widely adopted.
What was Edwin Chadwick’s report about?
It highlighted the poor sanitary conditions of the working population and suggested improvements
His ideas contributed to the Public Health Act of 1848.
What was the significance of John Snow’s work during the cholera epidemic?
Mapped cases and identified a contaminated water source, demonstrating the link between water and cholera
His findings were initially met with skepticism.
Who was Louis Pasteur?
A French scientist known for breakthroughs in understanding the cause of illness
What problem was Pasteur asked to investigate in 1854?
Why vats of beer were turning sour
What theory did Pasteur disprove?
Spontaneous generation theory
What is the germ theory?
Microorganisms cause decay rather than being created by rotting matter
What are the four basic principles of germ theory?
- The air contains living microorganisms
- Microorganisms can be killed by heating them
- Microorganisms in the air cause decay
- Microorganisms are not distributed equally in the air
In what year did Pasteur publish ‘Germ Theory and its Applications to Medicine’?
1878
Who was Joseph Lister?
A professor of surgery who improved surgical methods using antiseptics
What was Lister’s key antiseptic method?
Using carbolic acid to clean wounds and surgical instruments
What was the primary opposition to Lister’s antiseptic methods?
Carbolic spray made instruments slippery and caused skin irritation
What prompted the government to take action on public health?
The Great Stink and John Snow’s work on cholera
What was Joseph Bazalgette’s role in public health?
Chief engineer of the London sewer system
What significant acts were passed regarding public health?
- 1866 Sanitary Act
- 1875 Artisans Dwelling Act
- 1875 Public Health Act
What did the 1875 Public Health Act require local authorities to do?
- Appoint medical health officers
- Conduct regular inspections of public health facilities
- Raise taxes for clean water and sanitation
Who was Florence Nightingale?
A nursing pioneer who established standards for hospital care
What did Nightingale’s book ‘Notes on Nursing’ emphasize?
- Importance of ventilation
- Cleanliness
- Space between patients
What was a significant outcome of Nightingale’s work?
Improved hygiene and reduced infection rates in hospitals
What barriers did women face in entering medicine?
- Beliefs that women were less intelligent
- Lack of access to higher education
- Societal expectations to focus on family
Who was Elizabeth Garrett?
The first female to qualify as a doctor in Britain
What did the College of Apothecaries do in response to Garrett’s father’s threat?
Allowed Garrett to take their exams and qualify as a doctor
What was the impact of the 1878 parliamentary change regarding women in medicine?
Women were allowed to study in universities and obtain medical degrees
What arguments were made against women becoming doctors?
- Women were not clever enough
- Women would bring standards down
- It was against women’s natural roles
Who was Robert Koch?
A German doctor who discovered a specific microbe that caused a disease
What disease did Robert Koch investigate?
Anthrax
How many people and farm animals were affected by anthrax in Koch’s area?
500 people and over 50,000 farm animals
What significant scientific theory did Koch’s findings support?
Pasteur’s germ theory
In what year did Koch publish his findings?
1876
What new field of science did Koch’s work help establish?
Bacteriology
What was Pasteur’s contribution to germ theory in 1878?
He linked disease to microorganisms
What was the outcome of Pasteur’s chicken cholera experiment?
Chickens injected with a weakened culture did not develop cholera
What did Pasteur develop in 1881 using Koch’s work?
Anthrax vaccination
What was the result of Pasteur’s public vaccination experiment in 1881?
Vaccinated animals survived, while the control group did not
Who was Joseph Meister?
A 9-year-old boy bitten by a rabid dog and vaccinated by Pasteur
What microorganism did Koch identify in 1882?
Tuberculosis
What technique did Koch develop for growing cultures?
Use of agar jelly in petri dishes
What was the nature of the rivalry between Pasteur and Koch?
Both wanted to make significant scientific discoveries
What major surgical advancement did Lister introduce?
Antiseptic techniques
What was the impact of Koch’s steam sterilizer developed in 1878?
Improved sterilization of equipment and dressings
What is aseptic surgery?
Techniques aimed at preventing microorganisms from reaching open wounds
What material did Lister find to be effective for ligatures?
Catgut
What local anesthetic was discovered in 1884?
Cocaine
What was the significance of the Public Health Act of 1875?
Made local councils responsible for public health measures
What was one major improvement from the Public Health Act of 1875?
Reduced diseases by ensuring proper sewage treatment and clean water
What did the 1875 Artisans Dwelling Act allow local authorities to do?
Buy and demolish slum housing
What discovery did Karl Landsteiner make in 1901?
Different blood types
What was the first magic bullet discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1909?
Salvarsan 606
Who discovered X-rays?
Wilhelm Röntgen
What did Marie Curie contribute to medicine?
Research into radioactivity and its use in treating tumors
What were mobile X-rays known as during WW1?
‘Les petites curies’
What was the main impact of Pasteur and Koch’s work?
Provided the basis for understanding disease and improving public health
List two technologies that advanced medicine according to the text.
- X-ray machines
- Magic bullet
