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PHGY 314 > Chacron > Flashcards

Chacron Flashcards

1
Q

What is the main role of the posterior parietal cortex?

A

3D coordination, understand where we are relative to space and objects

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2
Q

What are the 3 main axes of the central nervous system?

A
  1. Dorsal-Ventral
  2. Rostral-Caudal
  3. Medial-Lateral
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3
Q

How do the main axes change in rodents vs human?

A

Rodents and Human brain:
Rostral-Caudal = front-back (eye - back of head in human and head - tail in mouse)
Ventral-Drosal = top-bottom (jaw - top of head in human)

Human spine:
Ventral-Dorsal = ventre-dos
Rostral-Caudal = top-bottom

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4
Q

What are the 3 brain slice? What axis does each correspond to?

A
  1. Horizontal (dorsal-ventral) - top bottom de la tête sont séparés/coupés
  2. Coronal (rostral-caudal) - devant/derrière de la tête sont séparés/coupés
  3. Sagittal (medial-lateral) - coupe le nez en 2
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5
Q

What are the major divisions of the central nervous system?

A
  • Cerebral cortex
  • Cerebellum
    (- Diencephalon)
  • Brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla)
  • Spinal cord
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6
Q

What are the 3 PRIMARY brain vesicles formed by the rostral end of the neural tube?

A
  1. Prosencephalon / Forbrain
  2. Mesencephalon / Midbrain
  3. Rhombencephalon / Hindbrain
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7
Q

What secondary vesicles does the forbrain differentiate into?

A
  1. Paired telencephalic vesicles (bigger)
  2. Paired optic vesicles (smaller)
  3. Diencephalon (middle part)
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8
Q

How does the forbrain develop specifically in human?

A
  1. Cerebral hemispheres (telencephalon) swell and grow posteriorly to envelop the diencephalon
    - Much more in human than in rodents
  2. Olfactory bulbs sprout off each telencephalic vesicle
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9
Q

What is the organization of the developed mesencephalon like?

A

*Mesencephalon = Midbrain
1. Roof = Tectum
2. Floor = Tegmentum
3. CFS filled core = cerebral aqueduct, where cerebral spinal fluid flows

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10
Q

From rostral to caudal what are the main divisions/structure of the central nervous system?
1. External layer
2. Internal layer

A

External layer:
Olfactory bulb + Basal telencephalon → Cortex → hypothalamus (ventral) + thalamus (dorsal) → Tegmentum (ventral) + Tectum (dorsal) → pons (ventral) + Cerebellum (dorsal) → medulla → spinal cord

Internal layer:
Telencephalon → Diencephalon → Mesencephalon (midbrain) → Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) → (medulla) → Spinal cord

*Diencephalon = thalamus

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11
Q

From rostral to caudal, what are the different ventricles in the central nervous system?

A
  1. Laternal ventricle (in Telencephalon)
  2. Thrid ventricle (in Diencephalon)
  3. Cerebral aqueduct (in Mesencephalon)
  4. Fourth ventricle
  5. Spinal canal
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12
Q

What are the 2 main subdivisions of the Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)?

A
  1. Metencephalon = pons + cerebellum
  2. Myelecephalon = medulla
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13
Q

How does the brain develop regional specialization? How do cells differentiate into different cell types according to their area in the brain?

A

Neurons in neural tube are initially equivalent, but surrouding cells secrete signaling molecules forming a gradient
(more concentrated at rostral end, less at caudal end)

  • Sonic hedgehog (Shh)
  • Bone morphogenic proteins (Bmp)
  • Wnt family of proteins
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14
Q

What molecules/signaling allows midbrain/hindbrain boundary?

A

Anteroposterior patterning :
→ Gradient of Wnt family of proteins: Wnt inhibitors (Anterior) vs Wnt signaling (Posterior)

This produces differences in transcription Otx2 vs Gbx2 factors:
→ Intersection of 2 transcription factor domains markes the midbrain-hindbrain boundary
- Otx2 TF → Forebrain _ Midbrain
- Gbx2 TF → Hindbrain

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15
Q

What in the central nervous system is conserved across different species?

A

The basic linear organisation is conserved:
Olfactory lobe → Telencephalon → Mesencephalon → Rhombencephalon (cerebellum and medulla)

ex: Forebrain encovers the midbrain in all species
- Every species use neurons and these connect in some way

*Conserved in fish, rodents, humans, etc.

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16
Q

What are the main differences in the basic organization of the central nervous system between the rat and human brain?

A
  1. Convolutions (only in human brain)
    - Groves = sulci (sulcus)
    - Bumps = gyri (gyrus)
  2. Forebrain organization
    - Human have relatively smaller olfactory bulbs as they rely on vision and audition more / Rats have relatively smaller visual cortex
  • Human cerebral hemispheres arcs in sphere shape (horn-shape), rats’ are more linear shaped
  1. Brainstem orientation
    - Human = more oblique
    - Rat = more horizontal
  2. Relative size is not the same (rat is much smaller)
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17
Q

What are the 4 major lobes? What separates them?

A

Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe (middle top), Occipital lobe (back), Temporal lobe (middle/bottom/side)

Central sulcus = Frontal-Parietal
Lateral sulcus = Frontal/Parietal-Temporal
Cingulate sulcus = bottom of frontal and parietal lobes
Parietal occipital sulcus = Parietal-Occipital
Calcarine sulcus = in the Occipital lobe

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18
Q

Can all vital structures of the cerbral hemishperes be seen from the surface?

A

NO
The Basal Ganglia and Insular Cortex and deeper inside

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19
Q

What is the Neocortex?

A

It comprises the largest part/the neurons of the cerebral cortex
⭢ Mediates high brain functions

**Divided into 6 layers (for all areas of the cerebral cortex)
The neurons in different layers have differences in their projections to other parts of the brain and in the origin of their input

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20
Q

What does a Golgi stain vs a Weigert stain allow?

A

Golgi stain allows to see cell bodies
Weigert stain allow to see the axons/the connections → we cas see lateral and vertical connections

*All cortical areas have the same basic structure even though they have different functions

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21
Q

What are the different layers of the neocortex?

A

Layer I: Molecular layer, no cell bodies, only axons
Layer II: External granule cell layer
Layer III: External pyramidal cell layer
Layer IV: Internal granule cells layer
Layer V: Internal pyramidal cell layer
Layer VI: Multiform layer

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22
Q

Where do cells from different layers send their output?

A

Layer VI → cortex and thalamus (farther)
Layer V → subcortical (ex: corticospinal tract, optic tectum)
Layer II and III → local projections to cortical neurons within the same area/nearby areas

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23
Q

How does organization of the neocortex change in the different areas?

A

Prominence of cortical layers varies → they all have 6 layers, but the width changes across the different areas

→ Different cell types across layer → different width of layers allow to have more or less of different cell types

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24
Q

What are other words for the Ascending vs Descending pathway of the Neocortex?

A

ALL excitatory neurons
Ascending pathway = Feedforward
Descending pathway = Feedback

*Different origins and targets

Ex in the visual system:
1. Ascending projections to higher levels of processing → originate in layers II and III (primary visual cortex V1) and then project to layer IV in the next cortical level (visual areas V2, V3)
2. Descending projections originate in deep layers (V, VI or cortical areas (ex: V2, V3) and project back to layers I, II & III (area V1)

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25
Q

What are the different characteristics of the Neocortex inhibitory neurons?

A
  1. Identified by staining for GABA
  2. Each type of GABAergic neuron has different projection patterns:
  • Chandelier cells → terminate on the axon of layer II/III pyramidal neurons
  • Large/small basket cells → terminate on the cell bodies of pyramidal neurons (Layer V vs II/III)
  • Less well characterized double bouquet and neurogliaform cells → the latter associated with axosomatic synapses on spiny non-pyramidal neurons (layer IV)
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26
Q

What are the 3 main structures within/inside the cerebral cortex?
How are these organized?

A
  1. Basal Ganglia
  2. Hippocampus
  3. Amygdala
    These subcortical structures are organized into discrete nuclei rather than 6 layer cortex
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27
Q

Which pathways/systems go through th thalamus?

A

Sensory Systems:
- Visual processing
- Auditory processing
- Somatosensory processing
- Vestibular processing
*NOT olfactory processing

→ Different subnuclei within the thalamus are responsible for processing and relaying information from different systems/ to different areas

Motor descending pathways (ex: Ventrolateral subnuclei) → start in motor cortex → thalamus → down to the arm

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28
Q

How is vestibular processing different than other sensory systems in the way the thalamus process the information?

A

Vestibular information is sent to the vestibular parietal cortex with information from other systems (from visual, auditory, etc.) for equilibrium, proprioception
Check if true

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29
Q

What nuclei/group of subnuclei of the thalamus is associated with the Auditory system?

A

Cochlea/midbrain/hindbrain → Medial geniculate nucleus (in the thalamus) → Auditory cortex

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30
Q

What nuclei/group of subnuclei of the thalamus is associated with the visual system?

A

Retina→ Lateral geniculate nucleus. → visual cortex

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31
Q

What does the efficient coding hypothesis state?

A

It is a theorie on sensory information processing from the brain, states that we adapt to the statistics of the natural stimuli
- Natural stimuli are very complex

We filter out unwanted information and focus on relevant info based on context → can be changed by different amounts of different neuromodulator (hormones)

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32
Q

What are the differences between peripheral and central sensory neurons in infromation processing?

A

Peripheral sensory neurons respond to most stimuli → dense code
- Comprises photoreceptors for ex

Central sensory neurons respond more selectively → sparse code (a specific subset responds to a cup only if green and other subset only if red, “AND”)
- High in the pathway, in the brain
- Different subpopulations of neurons respond to different stimuli
As you go higher up, smaller fraction of fibers respond

*Irrelevant information is filtered out (not processed)

33
Q

What are the steps of the general pathway for sensory information processing?

A

Touch receptor on the skin → dorsal root ganglion → dorsal coumn nuclei → ventral posterior lateral subnuclei (in the ventrolateral nuclei of the thalamus → somatosensory cortex

34
Q

What is feature invariance?

A

It is the fact that neural representation becomes invariant to identity-preserving transformations
Ex: we will recognize a friend in different lighting, with different clothes, at different distances, with people it beside or not/in different settings

→ Central sensory neurons are shown to be stimulated similarly for the same objected even when these parameters change (not peripheral neurons)
*Jennifer Aniston neurons

*Seen in central cells

35
Q

Are the more selective neurons also the ones that allow invariance or are they different?

A

Ther are the same ones, as we go up in the processing pathways, neurons get more and more selective AND invariant
*TRADEOFF

→ The same neurons would get activated for the same car in different position, but if the car is very similar but not quite the same, the same neurons will not be activated

36
Q

What are examples of unimodal and multimodal association cortices on which the somatosensory cortex projects on?

A

Anterior parietal cortex projects onto the premotor cortex and posterior parietal cortex (Unimodal association cortex)

Posterior parietal cortex projects onto temporal association cortex, cingulate cortex and parahippocampal cortex (all multimodal)

37
Q

In the somatosensory system, what is the sequence of CORTICAL processing?

A
  1. Primary somatosensory (unimodal) cortex
  2. Unimodal asociation cortices
  3. Mulitmodal association cortices
38
Q

What are unimodal areas?
What projects to the different unimodal cortex areas?

A

Unimodal areas = areas devoted to different sensory modalities (a specific one) and then project to areas that may be multimodal

Visual, auditory, somatosensory and vestibular processing use different subnuclei in the thalamus to project to different unimodal cortex areas for each sens

39
Q

What is the McGurk Effect?
What cortical area is involved?

A

It is the fact that we make an association between a sound and the mouvement of the lips, so if the sound doesn’t change but the movement of the lips does, we will hear a change in the sound if we are visual dominant and vice versa (most people are visual dependent so hear what they actually see)

Multimodal cortex → input from one sense to influence interpretation from another sense → McGurk effect demonstrates that

40
Q

Which pathway is reponsible for voluntary motor control?

A

The corticospinal pathway:
Neurons in motor cortex (layer V) have projections onto neurons in the ventral horn (efferent) of the spinal cord

*M1 → midbrain → pons → medulla → cervical spinal cord
Primary moter cortex = M1

41
Q

What parts of the brain are involved in the descending pathway of the voluntary motor control?

A

Motor cortex/Premotor cortex (planing)/ Somatosensory cortex → thalamus (ventrolateral nucleus) → midbrain → red nucleus → cerebellum → spinal cord

*Corticospinal pathways

42
Q

What are 2 key factors of representation and of sensory processing for further motor control?

A

Representation of personal vs extrapersonnal space:

Neural representation of the body surface is provided by senses of touch and proprioception → depending on where neurons are located in the somatosensory cortex, they receive info from different parts of the body

Extrapersonal space is represented in posterior parietal cortex

43
Q

What is the effect of lesions in the posterior parietal cortex?

A

Problems in spatial relationships in extrapersonal space:
*Dorsal visual pathway affected
- Visual neglect for objects (neglect side opposit to legion, draw a house)
- Personal neglect in reference to the body (draw self-portait)
- Representational neglect (can only recall landmarks from 1 side)
- Difficulties reaching and grabbing objects
*Does improve with time, but remains not symmetrical

44
Q

What is LIP? How did we get insight on its role?

A

LIP = Lateral Interparietal cortex

Single unit recording experiments give insight on the fact that it is involved in planning and control of voluntary movement

LIP neurons show retinal centered coding of visual target, but are attention specific → parietal cortex allows for changes in coordinate frame
Part of the dorsal visual pathway

45
Q

Explain the dorsal and ventral stream in the cortex.

A

Sensory information is processed in 2 streams:

Dorsal (parietal) stream:
- Visual + Somatosensory → Parietal association cortex → Frontal association cortex
- Projects onto frontal association areas (multimodal neurons)
- Controls motor functions that require SPATIAL information

Ventral (temporal) stream:
- Visual + Somatosensory + auditory → Temporal association cortex → Frontal association cortex
- Projects onto ventral regions of the frontal cortex
- Areas assign emotional significance to objects

46
Q

Which patients are likely to display optic ataxia?

A

Patients with dorsomedial parietal cortex lesion

Optical ataxia = difficulty to reach to an object and grab it

47
Q

What 2 factors allow us to conclude that the parietal cortex is responsible for spatial cognition?

A
  1. Lesion in the Parietal cortex in monkeys produce spatial problems (similarly than in humans)
  2. Neurons in parietal cortex have response properties to spatial information processing → areas: LIP, VIP, MIP
48
Q

What does it mean to change coordinate frame?

A

*Required in the sensory processing

To go from a eye-centered or head centered coordinate frame to a body centered or world centered coordinate frame. It is required to be able to identified where the body is compared to the cup of coffee I see on the table.

49
Q

What is optic flow?

A

The pattern of apparent motion of objects, surfaces, and edges in a visual scene caused by the relative motion between an observer and a scene.
- Rotate your head towards the left, everything looks like it is moving towards the right
- Things that are further look like they advance slower
*Your brain calculates these effects

50
Q

What characterizes the stimulation of a retinal centered neuron?

A
  1. Attention specific (higher firing rate, when the attention is directed towards the object)
  2. Receptive Field → NO stimulation if the object is outside of the RF
51
Q

Which areas of the brain are responsible for declarative memory?

A

Declarative memory = facts & events

Hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, diencephalon

52
Q

Which areas of the brain are responsible for nondeclarative memory?

A
  1. Skills and habits → Stratum, motor cortex, cerebellum
  2. Priming (finish a word if know 1st letters) → Neocortex
  3. Basic associative learning → emotional responses = amygdala, skeletal musculature = cerebellum
  4. Nonassociative learning → reflex pathway (ex: maintain gase while rotating the head)
53
Q

Describe the hippocampal anatomy.

A

All info comes in and leaves by Entorhinal cortex (closed loop)

Perforant pathway: Entorhinal cortex → Dentate Gyrus → CA3 → CA1 → Subiculum (conventional pathway through all fields of hippocampus)

From the unimodal and polymodal association areas, signal can get to entorhinal cortex by parahippocampal cortex or by perirhinal cortex

*Entorhinal , perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices are in the temporal lobe

54
Q

What is the mossy fiber pathway ?

A

In the hippocampus:
Granule cells in the Dentate gyrus mossy fiber (unmyelinated connections) onto CA3 pyramidal cells
→ region involved in encoding short-term memory.

55
Q

What is the Schaffer collateral pathway?

A

The Schaffer collateral is located between the CA3 region and CA1 region in the hippocampus. Schaffer collaterals are the axons of pyramidal cells that connect two neurons (CA3 and CA1) and transfer information from CA3 to CA1

56
Q

What are the functions of the right vs left hippocampus? (NOT anterior/posterior)

A

right hippocampus → spatial memory
left hippocampus → words, objects, people

*Concluded from lesion studies

57
Q

What information was noted from the MRI of the taxi drivers?

A

Total hippocampus size does not grow as a function of spatial navigation experience (no difference between taxi drivers and ctrl)

Significantly larger posterior hippocampus and significantly smaller anterior hippocampus for both right and left sides

*This change in size gradually increases with years of work

58
Q

What mechanism is known to underly formation of new memories by the hippocampus?

A

The hippocampus is the 1 of the only 2 areas in the brain where there is Continual neurogenesis (formation of new neurons)

59
Q

What are the 3 pieces of information we need for spatial navigation?

A
  1. Internal compass (where are we? → vestibular, stretch receptor if rotate the head, voluntary movements)
  2. External landmarks (what?)
  3. Neural representation of our environment → Spatial Map (memorized route)
60
Q

What experiment was done to analyse the effect of hippocampal lesions on rodents?

A

Put rat in a annular structure with water and a platform they will tend to prefer to water:
SHAM lesion = neg ctrl → animal remembers where the plateform was when taken out
CA3 lesions → animal remembers, but spatial accuracy is affected
Complete hippocampal lesion → no memory of where it was (the rat goes straight through that area without looking for it)
*Rodents are affected very similarly than humans

61
Q

What system is associated with the cingulate gyrus?
What structure of the brain is comprised in what starts as the diencephalon?

A

Cingulate Gyrus forms the majority of the limbic system

Diencephalon → Thalamus + Hypothalamus + Third ventricle

62
Q

What method/strategy is used better understand firing activity in the hippocampus?
(not exp. setup)

A

Rodents allows for multi-unit recordings from hippocampal neurons → Awake, Behaving, Moving animals

System’s level approach that reveals transformation occuring in hippocampal circuitry

Goal: understand how these transformations mediate complex behaviour, perception, learning, memory

63
Q

What experimental setup is used to record multi-unit neural activity in rodents?
(Hippocampus)

A
  1. Mouse is in closed envrionement with a stimuli or spatial clue (ex: cue card)
  2. Tetrodes are placed in the brain for single neuron recording
  3. The signal goes through an amplifier
  4. The information recorded from its hippocampus goes through a spike discriminator
  5. Information is visualized as a space field when each pixel is a location in the given space and the color of the dot it the firing rate of the a specific neuron at the spot (1 space field/neuron)
64
Q

What can be concluded from the CA1 cell spacial fields’ recordings? (what are the characteristics)

A
  1. CA1 pyramidal cell firing is location dependent (encode spatial location)
  2. The is no direction selectivity (independant on the animal’s path)
  3. Place fields are stable over time → critical for memory retention
    → Different neurons fire when animal is in different locations
    → Together, all the place fields constitute a map of the envrionment
    → Spare-code a at every location, a minority of cells fire
    To known where the animal is in space we need recordings from more than 1 neuron (no clue where when not firing)
    → No topographic organization (Neurons that are close in the hippothalamus do not fire in close locations)
    → Random (can’t presdict which cell fires for which location)
65
Q

What does it mean for place fields to be stable over time?

A
  1. Give time to an animal to acclimate in an environment
  2. Take it out
  3. Put it back → SAME place fields as previously
    *Can do this over and over and still get the same
66
Q

In summary, what are 3 characteristics of place fields?
What are place fields determined by?

A
  1. Direction insensitive (not path dependent)
  2. Place fields cover all space
  3. No topographic organization
    → CA1 pyramidal cells in rodent hippocampus encode location

They are determiend by exernal and self-motion cues

67
Q

Which cells in the brain are responsible for forming a cognitive map?
What are the 2 components required for navigation in en environment?

A

CA1 cells form a cognitive map → when activity from multiple of these cells are read together

  1. External landmark
  2. Internal compass
68
Q

What happens when landmarks positions are rotated with/without the animal’s knowledge?

A

With animal’s knowledge → NO remapping
Without → Rotation of the place field (reversible if change back when animal doesn’t know)

*Animal doesn’t know because the rotation speed in subvestibular threshold

69
Q

What happens to the place fields when there is translation of the rodent on a platform?

A

NO remapping of place fields when landmark positions are translated (withtout mouse knowledge)

70
Q

Are place fields more sensitive to external landmarks or internal compass?

A

More sensitive to external cue placement/absolute location with it does not contradict self-motion cues (vestibular wen animal rotated for ex)
→ If it contradicts self-motion cues, but the absolute location has not moved, there is still remapping (ex: rotate withtout mouse knowing)
ex: of self-motion cues = voluntary mvt, vestibular, visual, etc.

71
Q

Are placefield sensitive to changes in shape? to isotropic scaling of the envrionement?

A

Place fields are insensitive to changes in landmark shape of if put mouse in a bigger box
*No remapping

For isotropic scaling, a bit bigger space field could explain spatial resolution

72
Q

What happens to the spatial field of the cue card is removed without knowledge of the rodent?

A

Removal of external cues leads to random remapping of place fields
→ reversible if you put the cue card back
*We known that with knowldge, it wouldn’t change the spatial field (no remapping), recording from CA1 as always

73
Q

What happens to the spatial field if a new object is added without knowledge of the rodent?

A

Novel objects inside the place field → random remapping (reversible), not just little adaptation of previous place field
Outside of the place field → no remapping

74
Q

What is the double rotation experiment?

A

The rodent is exposed to local and distal cues

STD-1 → MIS-1 (90˚) → STD 2 → MIS-2 (135˚)
MIS-1 = distal rotated 45˚ clockwise + local rotated 45˚ anti-clockwise
MIS-2 = distal rotated 90˚ clockwise + local rotated 45˚ counter-clockwise

75
Q

What can we conclude from the double rotation experiment?

A

In more complex environment is complex, place field changes become more complex → more impredictible

  • Some place fields rotate CW along with distal landmarks (90˚ for MIS-1)
  • Some place field rotated CCW along with proximal landmark 90˚ for MIS-1)
  • Most place fields are remapped unpredictably (some might have all neurons stop firing at once)
76
Q

What happens if we let a mouse run in straight line from A to B and measure place fields?
What is this called?

A

Lap 1 → Bell shaped firing at a specific location along the way

By lap 15 → the palce fields elongated towards the direction the animal is coming from (towards pt A)

Shows plasticity in the place fields
Called experience dependent changes in place fields (CA1 cells are both envrionment and experience dependent)

77
Q

Describe the virtual reality experiments done on human to study spatial neurons of the hippocampus.

A

Single neuron recordings form patients suffering from epilepsy
→ Intracranial electrodes used to locate seizue focus
→ Patients played a “taxi driver” computer game, where got from A → B → C

Results:
1. There place sensitive cells in human hippocampus
2. place fields cover most of the environment
3. NOT directionally selective (same rodents)
4. Much fewer in human (24%) than in rodents (~80%)

78
Q

What are the caveats of the virtual reality experiment done to study spatial cells in the hippocampus?

A

Caveats + Why the results could be different than the rodent recordings:
1. It is virtual reality, no real world movement compared to the recording in rodents
2. Humans are much more visual (have glaze direction cells) and rodents are more orodat/ touch sensitive

79
Q

What are hippocampal space cells? How were they studied?

A

Hippocampal place cells are 3D spatial cells → found in non-humna primates with squirrel monkey recording in a box with ladders and food boxes

PHGY 314 (9 decks)

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