CH3: PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATIONS Flashcards
1
Q
reason why there are not as many female engineers in the US
A
- that job does NOT match female’s self-view
- receive low expectation signals from their male coworkers
2
Q
self-evaluation on the science test - boys vs. girls RESULTS
A
- boys - overestimate themselves
- girls - underestimate themselves
3
Q
we compare our images of the desired job with our
A
- current perceived self
- desired ideal self
- current abilities
- desired abilities
4
Q
we compare our images of desired and current abilities/self to see if
A
job fits us well
5
Q
three characteristics of self-concept
A
- complexity
- consistency
- clarity
6
Q
complexity
A
the number of distinct and important roles or identities that people receive about themselves
7
Q
everyone has some degree of complexity because
A
they see themselves in different roles at various times
8
Q
people are generally motivated to INCREASE/DECREASE their self-complexity
A
increase
9
Q
self-expansion
A
people generally motivated to increase their self-complexity
10
Q
the complexity of the self-concept is not defined just by the number of identities but also by the
A
separation of those identities
11
Q
individual who has many identities might still have LOW self-concept complexity when
A
those identities are highly interconnected
(example: work-related; manager and engineer)
12
Q
complexity is higher when
A
multiple identities have a low correlation with one another - two very different spheres of life
13
Q
how many selves dominate attention at the time?
A
only one!
14
Q
a particular self-view is ________________
A
domain-specific
15
Q
if we say that self-view is domain-specific we mean that
A
it is more likely to be activated in some settings than in the others
16
Q
when people shift their self-concept more easily?
A
- activated self-view is:
1. important
2. compatible with the situation (example: going home from work)
17
Q
consistency
A
degree to which the individual’s identities require similar personality attributes
18
Q
high consistency exists when individual’s identities are compatible with
A
- one another
- personality traits
- values
- attributes in general
19
Q
low consistency occurs when some self-views require
A
- personal attributes that conflict with attributes required for other self view
- individual’s dominant self-concept identities are INCOMPATIBLE with his or her actual attributes
20
Q
example: personal attributes that conflict with attributes required for other self-view
A
safety-conscious engineer and risk-orientated surfer
21
Q
example: individuals dominant self-concept identities are incompatible with his or her actual attributes (e.g., personality traits)
A
- someone has a self-view of highly creative individual, but scores low on the openness to experience
22
Q
clarity
A
degree to which person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined and stable
22
Q
clarity
A
degree to which person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined and stable
23
Q
clarity occurs when someone:
A
- confident about ‘Who I am’
- can describe their important identities to others
- provide the same description of the self accross time
24
self-concept CLARITY increases with _________________ because _________________
- age
- self-concept becomes more stable => better self-awareness though life experiences
25
self-concept is clearer when person has higher
consistency
26
clarity increases through
1. age
2. consistency
3. SELF-REFLECTION
27
when people live in other cultures they engage in _________________ , which improves their _________________
- self-reflection
- self-concept clarity
28
clarity is also related to the concept of
confidence
29
psychological well-being is the best when we have
1. DISTINCT multiple selves
2. well established multiple selves
3. those self-views require similar personal attributes as person's character!
30
because of the self-complexity, if one identity is damaged, the person's mental health remains
- not as affected because several selves remain intact
31
speaking about self-complexity which people suffer from most severe loss when they experience failure?
- low self-compelxity
- many self identities, but interconnected (not independent)
32
self-concept helps people _________________, but too much variation causes _________________
- adapt
- tension and conflict
33
well-being is even better ion multiple selves are
1. compatible with one another
2. compatible with personality/ characteristics
34
people who are unsure of their self-views are
1. more easily influenced by others
2. experience more stress when making decisions
3. feel more threatened by the social forces
35
self-complexity, constancy and clarity have both
positive and negative effects on behavior and performance
36
employees with complex identities tend to have
- more adaptive DECISION MAKINHGV
- more adaptive PERFORMANCE
37
explanation why self-complexity is good for the adaptive decision making and performance
- multiple selves => more experiences and more roles => easily altering behavior to SUIT the task/environments
38
self-concept complexity for employees also produces
diverse social networks
39
diverse social networks give employees
access to more RESOURCES and SOCIAL SUPPORT for the job performance
40
what is one ion the main drawbacks of self-concept complexity?
more complex => more effort to maintain and juggle - STRESSFUL
41
low complexity requires less _________________ and _________________ to develop only FEW identities
- effort
- resources
42
who would have better work performance - the person that is defined only by their job (low self-complexity) or someone with high self-complexity
low-self complexity (only the job)
43
self-concept clarity improves
1. performance
2. vital for leadership roles
44
which of 3 Cs is vital for leadership?
clarity
45
clarity provides clearer path forward which enables people to direct their efforts more efficiently to
career objectives
46
people with high self-concept clarity are less threatened by
interpersonal conflict
(more constructive problem-solving techniques)
47
less threat interpersonal conflict is seen in people with
clarity
48
very high role inflexibility is characteristic for those with
high clarity (opposite from the self-complexity)
49
high clarity cannot easily
adapt to changing job duties or environmental conditions
50
self-enhancement
a person's inherent motivation to have a POSITIVE self-concept + to have others perceive them favourably - competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, important
51
does self-enhancement have only positive consequences?
no, sometimes even negative
52
self-enhancement pros
1. better mental and physical health
2. can-do attitude
53
what generates can-do attitude?
self-confidence/ self-enhancement
54
'can do attitude'
motivates persistence in difficult/risky tasks
55
self-enhancement drawbacks
1. overestimate future returns in investment decision
2. engage in unsafe behaviour
56
what is responsible for executives repeating poor decisions? + corporate debt
self-enhancement
57
successful companies strive to help employees feel valued, which generates some degree of
self-enhancement
58
self-verification
a person's inherent motivation to CONFIRM and MAINTAIN his or hers existing self-concept
59
which process stabilises an individual's self-view
self-verification
60
what is considered to be the anchor which guides person's thoughts and actions?
self-verification
61
when someone's leadership is questioned by others, that person applies the _________________ strategies
self-verification strategies
(example: working longer hours - role performance more visible
62
self-verification strategies when someone's leadership is questioned - adopting MORE/LESS THREATENING style of that self-view
less
63
what is the difference between self-enhancement and self-verification
in self-verification people search for feedback that is not necessarily positive
64
what does research say - what do we prefer more - self-enhancement or self-verification?
- we enjoy compliments, but way less iff they are significantly CONTRARY to out SELF-VIEW
65
we enjoy compliments, but way less iff they are significantly _____________________to our _____________________
contrary
- self-view
66
employees are more likely to remember information that is CONSISTENT/INCONSISTENT with their self-concept
consistent
67
what is the consequences of employees devoting more attention to information that is consistent
sometimes they NONCONSCIOUSLY don't seek for negative information - feedback is useful
68
people that have high which of 3Cs will dismiss feedback that contradicts their self-concept
clarity
69
self-verification and OB topics with which it is associated
1. perceptual processes - employees more likely to remember the information consistent with their self-concept
2. high-self concept clarity and CONSCIOUSLY dismissing feedback that does not fit their self-concept
3. employees - motivated to interact with others who affirm their self-views
70
what affects how well employees get along with boss and team members
how they affirm their self-views
71
self-evaluation parts
1. self-esteem
2. self-efficacy
3. locus of control
72
self-esteem
extent to which people like, respect and are satisfied with themselves (GLOBA
73
people have the self-esteem for
each of their roles
74
overall evaluation of themselves is called
global self-esteem
75
people with high self-esteem are
1. less-influenced by others
2. persist in spite of failure
3. think more logically
76
self-efficacy
person's belief about successfully completing the task
77
people with high self-efficacy have high
'can do attitude'
78
people with high self-efficacy (can do) think that they have _____________________ to successfully complete the task
every component from the MARS model
79
self-efficacy is person's perception regarding _____________________ in a _____________________
MARS model
- specific situation
80
self-efficacy is often
task-specific
81
does self-efficacy only need to be task-specific?
no, it can be more generalised
82
people have general self-efficacy when
they believe they can be successful in various tasks/situations
83
people with higher self-efficacy have
higher overall self-evaluation
84
locus of control
person's general beliefs about the amount of control she or he has over personal life events
85
those who have internal locus of control believe that
life events are caused by their personal characteristics
86
those who have external locus of control believe that events are due to
fate, luck, conditions outside of them/their control
87
people with external locus of control believe that life outcomes are _____________________, but also believe that they have _____________________ the results the tsk
- out of their control
- control over
88
when is individual's locus of control most apparent?
new situations
89
which locus of control has more positive evaluation and which one is successful (more money, better job performance)?
internal locus of control
90
which locus of control is better for the leadership position?
internal
91
internal locus of control is motivated by
performance-based reward system
92
three levels of the self-concept
1. individual
2. relational
3. collective
93
two opposite motivations of the three levels of self-concept
1. Motivation to be distinctive and different from others
2. Motivation for inclusion and assimilation
94
internal self concept os the same as
individual self, personal identity
95
why does individual self fulfil distinctiveness?
it involves defining ourselves by our personality, values, abilities => ATTRIBUTES
96
which self-concept levels fulfilled the need to belong and assimilate with others?
- relational and collective
97
interpersonal and collective relationships are defined as
social identity or EXTERNAL self-concept
98
what is the central them of social identity theory
social identity
99
social identity theory says that
people define themselves based on the groups they belong to or attachments they make with them
100
factors that determine importance of social identity and group memberships
1. how easily you are identified as a member (eg., age, gender)
2. your minority status in the group (eg. one girl, 5 boys)
3. group's status
101
when is gender a stronger feature of defining your self-identity - many people of the same gender or many people of the different gender?
many people of different gender
102
group's status is a social identity factor because
association with the group makes us feel better about ourselves
103
medical doctors s usually define themselves by their status because of its
high status
104
do personal vs. collective/relational identities differ in their importance for individuals?
yes
105
who is more likely to abide by the team norms - those for whom personal or social identity is more important
social
106
who is more likely to be influenced by others more easily -those for whom personal or social identity is more important
social
107
those who value more their personal identities also tend to
1. speak out more frequently against majority
2. less motivated to follow team's wishes
108
expressing disagreement with others is a sign of
distinctiveness
109
disagreement can help employees ________________________, particularly when the disagreement is based on the ________________________
form a clearer self-concept
personal values
110
most of our perceptual energy is directed toward
outer world
111
perception
the process of reaching information about and making sense of the world around us
112
perception includes
1. which information to notice
2. how to categorise it
3. how to interpret it with the already existing knowledge
113
selective attention
the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information
114
selective attention is influenced by
1. characteristics of person/object being perceived (example: novelty, intensity, motion)
2. context (eg., someone using different accent in a setting where most people have the other one)
115
our brain processes ________________________ information whether it is relevant or irrelevant
unconsciously
116
first, brain processes the information and then ________________________
attaches emotional markers
117
emotional markers help us
store information in our memory
118
emotions are reproduced when
recalling the perceived information
119
two selective attention biases
1. effect of our assumptions and expectations about the future events
2. confirmation bias
120
example of the effect of our expectations bias
- being more likely to notice a particular coworkers embalming among dozens of messages when you EXPECT to receive that email (especially if the message is valuable)
121
how many people noticed the gorilla in SELECTIVE attention experiment
50%
122
is confirmation bias conscious or non-conscious
non-conscious
123
confirmation bias
screening out information inconsistent with the CONTRARY decisions, beliefs, values and assumptions, while MORE READILY accepting information that CONFIRMS existing perceptions and attitudes
124
when we make an important decision for our project we would search for
information that confirms our decision
125
perceptual groupings occur mostly
without our awareness
126
what is the foundation for the cognitive closure and making sense of things despite being unconscious
perceptual organization
127
categorical thinking
mostly nonsconsciouss process of organising people and objects into pre convinced categories that are stored in LTM
128
categorical thinking categories are stored in
long term memory
129
people are usually grouped together based on their SIMILARITY/DISIMILARITY
similarity (e.g., gender)
130
people are usually grouped based on their:
1. similarity
2. proximity
131
two perceptual grouping processes
1. categorical thinking
2. filling in the missing pieces of puzzle
132
to reduce ambiguity of missing stimuli, we make
assumptions about the missing information
133
we make assumptions about the missing information by
relying on the past images or experiences in those situations
134
past images or experiences are called
mental models
135
a related process to mental models and filling in the missing information
perceiving trends in the ambiguous information
136
people have a natural tendency to seek patterns that are
random events (e.g., tennis player that wins one match more likely to win another)
137
making sense of information consists of
1. organising
2. interpretation of information
138
what is quicker - interpretation or selection and organization
both equally quickly
139
why does interpretation happen quickly
emotional markers are tagged to incoming stimuli
140
emotional markers are tagged to incoming stimuli and they tell us if the upcoming information is
good or bad
141
we make RELIABLE judgements about other's trustworthiness after only
50ms
142
when are we going to be more reliable about our trustworthiness judgement - when we look at the face for 200ms or 1min
same
143
mental models
knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain and predict the world around us
144
mental models consist of
visual/relational images in our minds
145
mental models partly rely on the process of
perceptual grouping
146
mental models rely on the perceptual grouping to
make sense of things
147
mental models fill in the missing pieces including
causal connections among events
148
mental models make it difficult to
see the world in different ways (accounting professionals - that point of view, marketing - that point of view)
149
mental models block our recognition of
new opportunities
150
why is it hard to change mental models?
developed after several years of experience and reinforcement
151
the most important way to minimise perceptual problems with mental models
1. be aware of them
2. frequently question them
3. working with people from other background
152
stereotypes can be the characteristics that are
1. difficult to observe (personality)
2. physical characteristics
153
can stereotypes be formed through the personal experience?
yes
154
stereotypes are mainly formed through
1. media (movies)
2. other cultural mediums
155
stereotypes are shared beliefs across the ________________________ and it is a consequence of being formed thorugh ________________________
- entire society/culture rather than the opinion of an individual
- cultural mediums, media
156
what is the kernel of truth when it comes to stereotypes?
they are more likely to characterise people within the group that the rest of us
157
people tend to make stereotypes because it is a
enegery-saving process which simplifies our understanding of the world
158
it is easier to remember features of the ________________________ than what is ________________________ to everyone
stereotypes
unique
159
reasons for stereotypes
1. less time-consuming
2. innate need to understand and anticipate how others WILL behave
3. observer's need for the self-identity and self-enhancement
160
we rely on stereotypes because we
don't have much information when we meet someone or see them very rarely
161
the reliance on stereotypes will be higher if the
perceiver's need for the cognitive closure is higher
162
what leads to the processes of categorisation, homogenisation and differentiation?
1. social identity
2. self-enhancement
163
processes that are foundation of stereotyping
1. categorization
2. homogenization
3. differentiation
164
categorisation
social identity - comaparative process and it begins by catergorizing people to distinct groups
165
homogenisation
people in which group are very similar to other members of that group
166
homogenisation occurs in order to
simplify the comparison process (Serbians = collectively similar attitudes and Dutch = collectively similar attitudes)
167
differentiation
we assign more favourable characteristics to our group than to the other groups
168
the differentiation is motivated by the
self-enhancement
169
why is differentiation motivated by the self-enhancement?
being in the 'better' group enhances self-esteem,
170
differentiation is usually ________________________, but can ________________________
- subtle
- escalate
171
good-bad guy contrast occurs when groups engage in
OVERT conflict with each other
172
we are usually ________________________ motivated to assign ________________________ stereotypes to the out-group members because they ________________________
- unconsciously
- negative
- threaten our self-concept
173
who has stronger differentiation biases according to the research - men or women?
men, but everyone does it
174
stereotype threat
an individual's concern about confirming a negative stereotype about his or her group that they end up displaying that trait
175
why does stereotype threat occur?
- people from the stereotyped groups anxiously try to avoid confirming undesirable traits
- try to push negative image from their mind
176
stereotype threat can weaken
1. self-efficacy
177
stereotype threat divert
1. energy
2. attention
178
when gender stereotype is not salient (example: more women test takers), women will
achieve higher scores
179
what is considered to be the foundation for the discriminatory behavior?
stereotypes
180
most of discrimination is
unintentional / systematic
181
since discrimination is systematic, decision makers rely on stereotypes to establish the notions of
ideal person in specific roles (a person who does not fit into this ideal person has to work HARDER)
182
unintentional systematic discrimination also affects
1. salaries
2. employment opportunities
183
if applicant materials are the same except the name the higher salary would go to and who would be perceived as more competent and hire-ability
men
184
what is worse than systematic discrimination?
intentional discrimination or prejudice
185
what is the difference between systematic discrimination and prejudice
systematic - unintentional
unsystematic - intentional
186
is prejudice still common in organisations?
yes
187
when it comes to categorical thinking and thus stereotyping most researchers agree that it is ________________________ and ________________________ process
1. automatic
2. non-conscious
188
can specialised training programs for stereotypes minimise the activation to some extent?
yes, but it is hardwired in our brain cells
189
it is very difficult to prevent the ________________________ of the stereotypes but we can actually minimise the ________________________
- activation
- application (the extension to which we rely on the stereotypes in our behavior)
190
attribution process
the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior is caused largerly by the external or internal factors
191
three attribution rules
1. consistency
2. distinctiveness
3. consensus
192
what is high for both internal and external attributions
consistency
193
why is consistency high for both internal and external attributions?
it weakens our confidence about whether the source of the problem is the person or machine
194
what determines whether the attribution should be external or internal
distinctiveness and consensus
195
cosnsietncy determines
how confident we should be about the attribution
196
attribution is important because cause-effect relationship understanding allows us to
- work more efficiently with others
- assign more phrase or blame to them
197
self-serving bias
tendency to attribute success to internal characteristics and failures to external characteristics (annual reports of the executives)
198
self-serving bias is related to the process
self-enhancement => forming more positive self-concept
199
fundamental attribution error is the same as
correspondence bias
200
fundamental attribution error
overemphasise internal causes of another person's behavior and to discount or ignore external causes of their behavior
201
why does fundamental attribution error occur
1. we can't easily see the external factors that might be responsible
2. tendency to think that human beings are the PRIME SOURCES of their behavior
202
which type attributions perceive preference in the ambiguous situations?
internal n
203
why internal attributions perceive preference in the ambiguous situations?
tendency to think that humans are the PRIME SOURCES of their behavior
204
fundamental attribution error is less apparent in which cultures?
individualistic
205
the fundamental attribution error is ________________________ in all societies
modest
206
how can fundamental attribution error be minimised?
- giving to those people more external situation information
- warning them of the risk of the attribution error
207
self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when
expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations
208
self-fulfilling prophecy cycle
1. supervisor forms expectation about employee
2. expectations affect behaviour toward the employee
3. expectations affect employee's ability and motivation (self-confidence)
4. employee's behavior becomes more consistent with supervisor's initial expectations (more skills, knowledge, better performance)
209
why is the first step of the self-fulfilling prophecy usually inaccurate?
first impressions - limited cues
210
the two effects of the third step of self-fulfilling prophecy
1. high-expectancy employee - learns more skills and knowledge because of the extra trainings or attention
2. employee has higher self-efficacy
211
higher self-efficacy results in
higher motivation to set more challenging goals and motivation for them
212
has self-fulfilling prophecy been observed in many different contexts ?
yes
213
what is one of the most powerful effects on leadership effects on follower behavior and performance
self-fullfilling prophecy
214
the examples where self-fulfilling prophecy is stronger
1. beginning of the relationship
2. more people hold the same belief compared to just one
3. people with the history of low achievement
215
those with the history of low achievement tend to have lower ________________________, so they are more easily ________________________
- self-esteem
- other's opinion
216
positive organisational behavior
building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to what is wrong with them
217
if companies implement positive organisational behavior it will improve
- well-being
- success of organization
218
do programs about making leaders aware about the positive effect of the positive expectations?
minimal effect
219
generating positive exceptions and hope depends on.
corporate culture of support and learning
220
what is another way of increasing the incidence of self-fulfilling prophecy?
hiring supervisors who are inherently optimistic
221
halo effect
General impression of person from one trait affects perception of
person’s other traits.
222
example of the halo effect
person being late - forming the overall negative opinion about that person
223
the halo effect is most likely to occur when
1. important information is missing
2. not sufficiently motivated to search for that information
224
false-consensus effect
Overestimate extent that others share our beliefs or traits.
225
similar to me effect is same as
false consensus effect
226
4 reasons why false consensus effect occurs
1. comforted that others are similar to us especially for more negative behavior
2. we interact more with people who have the similar views and behaviours
3. confirmation bias
4. homogenising - most people from our groups have the same traits like us!
227
interacting more frequently with people who have the similar views and behaviours cause us to
overestimate how those behaviours are really common
228
recency effect
most recent information dominates our perception
229
when is the recency effect especially seen?
