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ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY > CH3: PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATIONS > Flashcards

CH3: PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATIONS Flashcards

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1
Q

reason why there are not as many female engineers in the US

A
  • that job does NOT match female’s self-view
  • receive low expectation signals from their male coworkers
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2
Q

self-evaluation on the science test - boys vs. girls RESULTS

A
  • boys - overestimate themselves
  • girls - underestimate themselves
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3
Q

we compare our images of the desired job with our

A
  1. current perceived self
  2. desired ideal self
  3. current abilities
  4. desired abilities
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4
Q

we compare our images of desired and current abilities/self to see if

A

job fits us well

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5
Q

three characteristics of self-concept

A
  1. complexity
  2. consistency
  3. clarity
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6
Q

complexity

A

the number of distinct and important roles or identities that people receive about themselves

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7
Q

everyone has some degree of complexity because

A

they see themselves in different roles at various times

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8
Q

people are generally motivated to INCREASE/DECREASE their self-complexity

A

increase

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9
Q

self-expansion

A

people generally motivated to increase their self-complexity

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10
Q

the complexity of the self-concept is not defined just by the number of identities but also by the

A

separation of those identities

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11
Q

individual who has many identities might still have LOW self-concept complexity when

A

those identities are highly interconnected
(example: work-related; manager and engineer)

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12
Q

complexity is higher when

A

multiple identities have a low correlation with one another - two very different spheres of life

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13
Q

how many selves dominate attention at the time?

A

only one!

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14
Q

a particular self-view is ________________

A

domain-specific

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15
Q

if we say that self-view is domain-specific we mean that

A

it is more likely to be activated in some settings than in the others

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16
Q

when people shift their self-concept more easily?

A
  • activated self-view is:
    1. important
    2. compatible with the situation (example: going home from work)
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17
Q

consistency

A

degree to which the individual’s identities require similar personality attributes

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18
Q

high consistency exists when individual’s identities are compatible with

A
  1. one another
  2. personality traits
  3. values
    - attributes in general
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19
Q

low consistency occurs when some self-views require

A
  • personal attributes that conflict with attributes required for other self view
  • individual’s dominant self-concept identities are INCOMPATIBLE with his or her actual attributes
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20
Q

example: personal attributes that conflict with attributes required for other self-view

A

safety-conscious engineer and risk-orientated surfer

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21
Q

example: individuals dominant self-concept identities are incompatible with his or her actual attributes (e.g., personality traits)

A
  • someone has a self-view of highly creative individual, but scores low on the openness to experience
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22
Q

clarity

A

degree to which person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined and stable

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22
Q

clarity

A

degree to which person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined and stable

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23
Q

clarity occurs when someone:

A
  1. confident about ‘Who I am’
  2. can describe their important identities to others
  3. provide the same description of the self accross time
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24
Q

self-concept CLARITY increases with _________________ because _________________

A
  • age
  • self-concept becomes more stable => better self-awareness though life experiences
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25
Q

self-concept is clearer when person has higher

A

consistency

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26
Q

clarity increases through

A
  1. age
  2. consistency
  3. SELF-REFLECTION
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27
Q

when people live in other cultures they engage in _________________ , which improves their _________________

A
  • self-reflection
  • self-concept clarity
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28
Q

clarity is also related to the concept of

A

confidence

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29
Q

psychological well-being is the best when we have

A
  1. DISTINCT multiple selves
  2. well established multiple selves
  3. those self-views require similar personal attributes as person’s character!
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30
Q

because of the self-complexity, if one identity is damaged, the person’s mental health remains

A
  • not as affected because several selves remain intact
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31
Q

speaking about self-complexity which people suffer from most severe loss when they experience failure?

A
  • low self-compelxity
  • many self identities, but interconnected (not independent)
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32
Q

self-concept helps people _________________, but too much variation causes _________________

A
  • adapt
  • tension and conflict
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33
Q

well-being is even better ion multiple selves are

A
  1. compatible with one another
  2. compatible with personality/ characteristics
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34
Q

people who are unsure of their self-views are

A
  1. more easily influenced by others
  2. experience more stress when making decisions
  3. feel more threatened by the social forces
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35
Q

self-complexity, constancy and clarity have both

A

positive and negative effects on behavior and performance

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36
Q

employees with complex identities tend to have

A
  • more adaptive DECISION MAKINHGV
  • more adaptive PERFORMANCE
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37
Q

explanation why self-complexity is good for the adaptive decision making and performance

A
  • multiple selves => more experiences and more roles => easily altering behavior to SUIT the task/environments
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38
Q

self-concept complexity for employees also produces

A

diverse social networks

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39
Q

diverse social networks give employees

A

access to more RESOURCES and SOCIAL SUPPORT for the job performance

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40
Q

what is one ion the main drawbacks of self-concept complexity?

A

more complex => more effort to maintain and juggle - STRESSFUL

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41
Q

low complexity requires less _________________ and _________________ to develop only FEW identities

A
  • effort
  • resources
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42
Q

who would have better work performance - the person that is defined only by their job (low self-complexity) or someone with high self-complexity

A

low-self complexity (only the job)

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43
Q

self-concept clarity improves

A
  1. performance
  2. vital for leadership roles
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44
Q

which of 3 Cs is vital for leadership?

A

clarity

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45
Q

clarity provides clearer path forward which enables people to direct their efforts more efficiently to

A

career objectives

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46
Q

people with high self-concept clarity are less threatened by

A

interpersonal conflict
(more constructive problem-solving techniques)

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47
Q

less threat interpersonal conflict is seen in people with

A

clarity

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48
Q

very high role inflexibility is characteristic for those with

A

high clarity (opposite from the self-complexity)

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49
Q

high clarity cannot easily

A

adapt to changing job duties or environmental conditions

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50
Q

self-enhancement

A

a person’s inherent motivation to have a POSITIVE self-concept + to have others perceive them favourably - competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, important

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51
Q

does self-enhancement have only positive consequences?

A

no, sometimes even negative

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52
Q

self-enhancement pros

A
  1. better mental and physical health
  2. can-do attitude
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53
Q

what generates can-do attitude?

A

self-confidence/ self-enhancement

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54
Q

‘can do attitude’

A

motivates persistence in difficult/risky tasks

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55
Q

self-enhancement drawbacks

A
  1. overestimate future returns in investment decision
  2. engage in unsafe behaviour
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56
Q

what is responsible for executives repeating poor decisions? + corporate debt

A

self-enhancement

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57
Q

successful companies strive to help employees feel valued, which generates some degree of

A

self-enhancement

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58
Q

self-verification

A

a person’s inherent motivation to CONFIRM and MAINTAIN his or hers existing self-concept

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59
Q

which process stabilises an individual’s self-view

A

self-verification

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60
Q

what is considered to be the anchor which guides person’s thoughts and actions?

A

self-verification

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61
Q

when someone’s leadership is questioned by others, that person applies the _________________ strategies

A

self-verification strategies
(example: working longer hours - role performance more visible

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62
Q

self-verification strategies when someone’s leadership is questioned - adopting MORE/LESS THREATENING style of that self-view

A

less

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63
Q

what is the difference between self-enhancement and self-verification

A

in self-verification people search for feedback that is not necessarily positive

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64
Q

what does research say - what do we prefer more - self-enhancement or self-verification?

A
  • we enjoy compliments, but way less iff they are significantly CONTRARY to out SELF-VIEW
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65
Q

we enjoy compliments, but way less iff they are significantly _____________________to our _____________________

A

contrary
- self-view

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66
Q

employees are more likely to remember information that is CONSISTENT/INCONSISTENT with their self-concept

A

consistent

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67
Q

what is the consequences of employees devoting more attention to information that is consistent

A

sometimes they NONCONSCIOUSLY don’t seek for negative information - feedback is useful

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68
Q

people that have high which of 3Cs will dismiss feedback that contradicts their self-concept

A

clarity

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69
Q

self-verification and OB topics with which it is associated

A
  1. perceptual processes - employees more likely to remember the information consistent with their self-concept
  2. high-self concept clarity and CONSCIOUSLY dismissing feedback that does not fit their self-concept
  3. employees - motivated to interact with others who affirm their self-views
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70
Q

what affects how well employees get along with boss and team members

A

how they affirm their self-views

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71
Q

self-evaluation parts

A
  1. self-esteem
  2. self-efficacy
  3. locus of control
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72
Q

self-esteem

A

extent to which people like, respect and are satisfied with themselves (GLOBA

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73
Q

people have the self-esteem for

A

each of their roles

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74
Q

overall evaluation of themselves is called

A

global self-esteem

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75
Q

people with high self-esteem are

A
  1. less-influenced by others
  2. persist in spite of failure
  3. think more logically
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76
Q

self-efficacy

A

person’s belief about successfully completing the task

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77
Q

people with high self-efficacy have high

A

‘can do attitude’

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78
Q

people with high self-efficacy (can do) think that they have _____________________ to successfully complete the task

A

every component from the MARS model

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79
Q

self-efficacy is person’s perception regarding _____________________ in a _____________________

A

MARS model
- specific situation

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80
Q

self-efficacy is often

A

task-specific

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81
Q

does self-efficacy only need to be task-specific?

A

no, it can be more generalised

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82
Q

people have general self-efficacy when

A

they believe they can be successful in various tasks/situations

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83
Q

people with higher self-efficacy have

A

higher overall self-evaluation

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84
Q

locus of control

A

person’s general beliefs about the amount of control she or he has over personal life events

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85
Q

those who have internal locus of control believe that

A

life events are caused by their personal characteristics

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86
Q

those who have external locus of control believe that events are due to

A

fate, luck, conditions outside of them/their control

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87
Q

people with external locus of control believe that life outcomes are _____________________, but also believe that they have _____________________ the results the tsk

A
  • out of their control
  • control over
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88
Q

when is individual’s locus of control most apparent?

A

new situations

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89
Q

which locus of control has more positive evaluation and which one is successful (more money, better job performance)?

A

internal locus of control

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90
Q

which locus of control is better for the leadership position?

A

internal

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91
Q

internal locus of control is motivated by

A

performance-based reward system

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92
Q

three levels of the self-concept

A
  1. individual
  2. relational
  3. collective
93
Q

two opposite motivations of the three levels of self-concept

A
  1. Motivation to be distinctive and different from others
  2. Motivation for inclusion and assimilation
94
Q

internal self concept os the same as

A

individual self, personal identity

95
Q

why does individual self fulfil distinctiveness?

A

it involves defining ourselves by our personality, values, abilities => ATTRIBUTES

96
Q

which self-concept levels fulfilled the need to belong and assimilate with others?

A
  • relational and collective
97
Q

interpersonal and collective relationships are defined as

A

social identity or EXTERNAL self-concept

98
Q

what is the central them of social identity theory

A

social identity

99
Q

social identity theory says that

A

people define themselves based on the groups they belong to or attachments they make with them

100
Q

factors that determine importance of social identity and group memberships

A
  1. how easily you are identified as a member (eg., age, gender)
  2. your minority status in the group (eg. one girl, 5 boys)
  3. group’s status
101
Q

when is gender a stronger feature of defining your self-identity - many people of the same gender or many people of the different gender?

A

many people of different gender

102
Q

group’s status is a social identity factor because

A

association with the group makes us feel better about ourselves

103
Q

medical doctors s usually define themselves by their status because of its

A

high status

104
Q

do personal vs. collective/relational identities differ in their importance for individuals?

A

yes

105
Q

who is more likely to abide by the team norms - those for whom personal or social identity is more important

A

social

106
Q

who is more likely to be influenced by others more easily -those for whom personal or social identity is more important

A

social

107
Q

those who value more their personal identities also tend to

A
  1. speak out more frequently against majority
  2. less motivated to follow team’s wishes
108
Q

expressing disagreement with others is a sign of

A

distinctiveness

109
Q

disagreement can help employees ________________________, particularly when the disagreement is based on the ________________________

A

form a clearer self-concept
personal values

110
Q

most of our perceptual energy is directed toward

A

outer world

111
Q

perception

A

the process of reaching information about and making sense of the world around us

112
Q

perception includes

A
  1. which information to notice
  2. how to categorise it
  3. how to interpret it with the already existing knowledge
113
Q

selective attention

A

the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information

114
Q

selective attention is influenced by

A
  1. characteristics of person/object being perceived (example: novelty, intensity, motion)
  2. context (eg., someone using different accent in a setting where most people have the other one)
115
Q

our brain processes ________________________ information whether it is relevant or irrelevant

A

unconsciously

116
Q

first, brain processes the information and then ________________________

A

attaches emotional markers

117
Q

emotional markers help us

A

store information in our memory

118
Q

emotions are reproduced when

A

recalling the perceived information

119
Q

two selective attention biases

A
  1. effect of our assumptions and expectations about the future events
  2. confirmation bias
120
Q

example of the effect of our expectations bias

A
  • being more likely to notice a particular coworkers embalming among dozens of messages when you EXPECT to receive that email (especially if the message is valuable)
121
Q

how many people noticed the gorilla in SELECTIVE attention experiment

A

50%

122
Q

is confirmation bias conscious or non-conscious

A

non-conscious

123
Q

confirmation bias

A

screening out information inconsistent with the CONTRARY decisions, beliefs, values and assumptions, while MORE READILY accepting information that CONFIRMS existing perceptions and attitudes

124
Q

when we make an important decision for our project we would search for

A

information that confirms our decision

125
Q

perceptual groupings occur mostly

A

without our awareness

126
Q

what is the foundation for the cognitive closure and making sense of things despite being unconscious

A

perceptual organization

127
Q

categorical thinking

A

mostly nonsconsciouss process of organising people and objects into pre convinced categories that are stored in LTM

128
Q

categorical thinking categories are stored in

A

long term memory

129
Q

people are usually grouped together based on their SIMILARITY/DISIMILARITY

A

similarity (e.g., gender)

130
Q

people are usually grouped based on their:

A
  1. similarity
  2. proximity
131
Q

two perceptual grouping processes

A
  1. categorical thinking
  2. filling in the missing pieces of puzzle
132
Q

to reduce ambiguity of missing stimuli, we make

A

assumptions about the missing information

133
Q

we make assumptions about the missing information by

A

relying on the past images or experiences in those situations

134
Q

past images or experiences are called

A

mental models

135
Q

a related process to mental models and filling in the missing information

A

perceiving trends in the ambiguous information

136
Q

people have a natural tendency to seek patterns that are

A

random events (e.g., tennis player that wins one match more likely to win another)

137
Q

making sense of information consists of

A
  1. organising
  2. interpretation of information
138
Q

what is quicker - interpretation or selection and organization

A

both equally quickly

139
Q

why does interpretation happen quickly

A

emotional markers are tagged to incoming stimuli

140
Q

emotional markers are tagged to incoming stimuli and they tell us if the upcoming information is

A

good or bad

141
Q

we make RELIABLE judgements about other’s trustworthiness after only

A

50ms

142
Q

when are we going to be more reliable about our trustworthiness judgement - when we look at the face for 200ms or 1min

A

same

143
Q

mental models

A

knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain and predict the world around us

144
Q

mental models consist of

A

visual/relational images in our minds

145
Q

mental models partly rely on the process of

A

perceptual grouping

146
Q

mental models rely on the perceptual grouping to

A

make sense of things

147
Q

mental models fill in the missing pieces including

A

causal connections among events

148
Q

mental models make it difficult to

A

see the world in different ways (accounting professionals - that point of view, marketing - that point of view)

149
Q

mental models block our recognition of

A

new opportunities

150
Q

why is it hard to change mental models?

A

developed after several years of experience and reinforcement

151
Q

the most important way to minimise perceptual problems with mental models

A
  1. be aware of them
  2. frequently question them
  3. working with people from other background
152
Q

stereotypes can be the characteristics that are

A
  1. difficult to observe (personality)
  2. physical characteristics
153
Q

can stereotypes be formed through the personal experience?

A

yes

154
Q

stereotypes are mainly formed through

A
  1. media (movies)
  2. other cultural mediums
155
Q

stereotypes are shared beliefs across the ________________________ and it is a consequence of being formed thorugh ________________________

A
  • entire society/culture rather than the opinion of an individual
  • cultural mediums, media
156
Q

what is the kernel of truth when it comes to stereotypes?

A

they are more likely to characterise people within the group that the rest of us

157
Q

people tend to make stereotypes because it is a

A

enegery-saving process which simplifies our understanding of the world

158
Q

it is easier to remember features of the ________________________ than what is ________________________ to everyone

A

stereotypes
unique

159
Q

reasons for stereotypes

A
  1. less time-consuming
  2. innate need to understand and anticipate how others WILL behave
  3. observer’s need for the self-identity and self-enhancement
160
Q

we rely on stereotypes because we

A

don’t have much information when we meet someone or see them very rarely

161
Q

the reliance on stereotypes will be higher if the

A

perceiver’s need for the cognitive closure is higher

162
Q

what leads to the processes of categorisation, homogenisation and differentiation?

A
  1. social identity
  2. self-enhancement
163
Q

processes that are foundation of stereotyping

A
  1. categorization
  2. homogenization
  3. differentiation
164
Q

categorisation

A

social identity - comaparative process and it begins by catergorizing people to distinct groups

165
Q

homogenisation

A

people in which group are very similar to other members of that group

166
Q

homogenisation occurs in order to

A

simplify the comparison process (Serbians = collectively similar attitudes and Dutch = collectively similar attitudes)

167
Q

differentiation

A

we assign more favourable characteristics to our group than to the other groups

168
Q

the differentiation is motivated by the

A

self-enhancement

169
Q

why is differentiation motivated by the self-enhancement?

A

being in the ‘better’ group enhances self-esteem,

170
Q

differentiation is usually ________________________, but can ________________________

A
  • subtle
  • escalate
171
Q

good-bad guy contrast occurs when groups engage in

A

OVERT conflict with each other

172
Q

we are usually ________________________ motivated to assign ________________________ stereotypes to the out-group members because they ________________________

A
  • unconsciously
  • negative
  • threaten our self-concept
173
Q

who has stronger differentiation biases according to the research - men or women?

A

men, but everyone does it

174
Q

stereotype threat

A

an individual’s concern about confirming a negative stereotype about his or her group that they end up displaying that trait

175
Q

why does stereotype threat occur?

A
  • people from the stereotyped groups anxiously try to avoid confirming undesirable traits
  • try to push negative image from their mind
176
Q

stereotype threat can weaken

A
  1. self-efficacy
177
Q

stereotype threat divert

A
  1. energy
  2. attention
178
Q

when gender stereotype is not salient (example: more women test takers), women will

A

achieve higher scores

179
Q

what is considered to be the foundation for the discriminatory behavior?

A

stereotypes

180
Q

most of discrimination is

A

unintentional / systematic

181
Q

since discrimination is systematic, decision makers rely on stereotypes to establish the notions of

A

ideal person in specific roles (a person who does not fit into this ideal person has to work HARDER)

182
Q

unintentional systematic discrimination also affects

A
  1. salaries
  2. employment opportunities
183
Q

if applicant materials are the same except the name the higher salary would go to and who would be perceived as more competent and hire-ability

A

men

184
Q

what is worse than systematic discrimination?

A

intentional discrimination or prejudice

185
Q

what is the difference between systematic discrimination and prejudice

A

systematic - unintentional
unsystematic - intentional

186
Q

is prejudice still common in organisations?

A

yes

187
Q

when it comes to categorical thinking and thus stereotyping most researchers agree that it is ________________________ and ________________________ process

A
  1. automatic
  2. non-conscious
188
Q

can specialised training programs for stereotypes minimise the activation to some extent?

A

yes, but it is hardwired in our brain cells

189
Q

it is very difficult to prevent the ________________________ of the stereotypes but we can actually minimise the ________________________

A
  • activation
  • application (the extension to which we rely on the stereotypes in our behavior)
190
Q

attribution process

A

the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior is caused largerly by the external or internal factors

191
Q

three attribution rules

A
  1. consistency
  2. distinctiveness
  3. consensus
192
Q

what is high for both internal and external attributions

A

consistency

193
Q

why is consistency high for both internal and external attributions?

A

it weakens our confidence about whether the source of the problem is the person or machine

194
Q

what determines whether the attribution should be external or internal

A

distinctiveness and consensus

195
Q

cosnsietncy determines

A

how confident we should be about the attribution

196
Q

attribution is important because cause-effect relationship understanding allows us to

A
  • work more efficiently with others
  • assign more phrase or blame to them
197
Q

self-serving bias

A

tendency to attribute success to internal characteristics and failures to external characteristics (annual reports of the executives)

198
Q

self-serving bias is related to the process

A

self-enhancement => forming more positive self-concept

199
Q

fundamental attribution error is the same as

A

correspondence bias

200
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

overemphasise internal causes of another person’s behavior and to discount or ignore external causes of their behavior

201
Q

why does fundamental attribution error occur

A
  1. we can’t easily see the external factors that might be responsible
  2. tendency to think that human beings are the PRIME SOURCES of their behavior
202
Q

which type attributions perceive preference in the ambiguous situations?

A

internal n

203
Q

why internal attributions perceive preference in the ambiguous situations?

A

tendency to think that humans are the PRIME SOURCES of their behavior

204
Q

fundamental attribution error is less apparent in which cultures?

A

individualistic

205
Q

the fundamental attribution error is ________________________ in all societies

A

modest

206
Q

how can fundamental attribution error be minimised?

A
  • giving to those people more external situation information
  • warning them of the risk of the attribution error
207
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when

A

expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations

208
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy cycle

A
  1. supervisor forms expectation about employee
  2. expectations affect behaviour toward the employee
  3. expectations affect employee’s ability and motivation (self-confidence)
  4. employee’s behavior becomes more consistent with supervisor’s initial expectations (more skills, knowledge, better performance)
209
Q

why is the first step of the self-fulfilling prophecy usually inaccurate?

A

first impressions - limited cues

210
Q

the two effects of the third step of self-fulfilling prophecy

A
  1. high-expectancy employee - learns more skills and knowledge because of the extra trainings or attention
  2. employee has higher self-efficacy
211
Q

higher self-efficacy results in

A

higher motivation to set more challenging goals and motivation for them

212
Q

has self-fulfilling prophecy been observed in many different contexts ?

A

yes

213
Q

what is one of the most powerful effects on leadership effects on follower behavior and performance

A

self-fullfilling prophecy

214
Q

the examples where self-fulfilling prophecy is stronger

A
  1. beginning of the relationship
  2. more people hold the same belief compared to just one
  3. people with the history of low achievement
215
Q

those with the history of low achievement tend to have lower ________________________, so they are more easily ________________________

A
  • self-esteem
  • other’s opinion
216
Q

positive organisational behavior

A

building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to what is wrong with them

217
Q

if companies implement positive organisational behavior it will improve

A
  • well-being
  • success of organization
218
Q

do programs about making leaders aware about the positive effect of the positive expectations?

A

minimal effect

219
Q

generating positive exceptions and hope depends on.

A

corporate culture of support and learning

220
Q

what is another way of increasing the incidence of self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

hiring supervisors who are inherently optimistic

221
Q

halo effect

A

General impression of person from one trait affects perception of
person’s other traits.

222
Q

example of the halo effect

A

person being late - forming the overall negative opinion about that person

223
Q

the halo effect is most likely to occur when

A
  1. important information is missing
  2. not sufficiently motivated to search for that information
224
Q

false-consensus effect

A

Overestimate extent that others share our beliefs or traits.

225
Q

similar to me effect is same as

A

false consensus effect

226
Q

4 reasons why false consensus effect occurs

A
  1. comforted that others are similar to us especially for more negative behavior
  2. we interact more with people who have the similar views and behaviours
  3. confirmation bias
  4. homogenising - most people from our groups have the same traits like us!
227
Q

interacting more frequently with people who have the similar views and behaviours cause us to

A

overestimate how those behaviours are really common

228
Q

recency effect

A

most recent information dominates our perception

229
Q

when is the recency effect especially seen?

A

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (4 decks)

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