Ch.3 Learning and memory

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

The way in which we acquire new behaviors

Question 2

Habituation

Answer 2

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response

Question 3

Dishabituation

Answer 3

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occured. Occurs when a second stimulus is presented that interrupts the habituation process and causes an increase in response to the original stimulus. Temporary response that always refers one to the original stimulus, not the new one.

Question 4

Associative learning

Answer 4

Pairing of either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response (classical and operant conditioning)

Question 5

Classical conditioning (acquisition)

Answer 5

Created associations between two unrelated stimuli. Unconditioned stimulus (stimulus that produces reflexive response) and unconditioned response (innate response) are paired with a neutral stimuli. When the neutral stimuli is paired with the unconditioned stimulus enough, it can become a conditioned stimulus (stimulus that now causes a reflexive response called the conditioned response)

Question 6

Extinction (of stimulus)

Answer 6

If conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated and extinction occurs. Spontaneous recovery of the stimulus may happen randomly.

Question 7

Generalization

Answer 7

A broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response. (eg. fear of objects that look like the original feared thing, such as a rat)

Question 8

Discrimination (of stimuli)

Answer 8

An organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli. Opposite of generalization.

Question 9

Operant conditioning

Answer 9

Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of a particular behavior. Positive reinforcers add a positive consequence. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior by taking away a negative thing. Positive punishment is giving a bad thing and negative punishment is taking away a good thing.

Question 10

Escape learning

Answer 10

Negative reinforcer where the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, such as a headache.

Question 11

Avoidance learning

Answer 11

Negative reinforcer that is meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen. (Studying for the MCAT to avoid the unpleasant consequence of a low score)

Question 12

Fixed-ratio schedules

Answer 12

Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. (eg. feeding a rat after every third time it presses a bar in the cage). Continuous reinforcement is where behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

Question 13

Variable-ratio schedules

Answer 13

Reinforce behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. Has the fastest response rate because a rat may continue pressing the bar quickly with hope that the next press is the one that will give a reward

Question 14

Fixed interval schedules

Answer 14

Reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed (must wait 60 sec before a desired behavior reaps a reward)

Question 15

Variable interval schedules

Answer 15

Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time (must wait 60 sec first time then 90 sec next time)

Question 16

Shaping

Answer 16

The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors. The organism must continually behave in a more specific way to receive the next reward.

Question 17

Latent Learning

Answer 17

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced. Incentive added in the middle of a task can increase behavior

Question 18

Problem solving

Answer 18

Higher order function allows us to step back and analyze a situation, rather than random trial-and-error approach to hopefully yield the correct behavior

Question 19

Preparedness

Answer 19

Predisposition of animals to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts (birds will peck, because this is the easiest way to get the reward of getting food)

Question 20

Instinctive drift

Answer 20

The difficulty for animals to overcome their instinctual behaviors and produce new behaviors.

Question 21

Observational learning

Answer 21

Process of learning a new behavior or gaining info by watching others. (Bobo doll experiment). Can also include watching another get punished, therefore decreasing the prevalence of an undesired behavior

Question 22

Mirror neurons

Answer 22

Neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes that are important in observational learning through producing empathy. They fire when experiencing emotion and when observing others experiencing emotion.

Question 23

Modeling

Answer 23

People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them. Strongest when a models words are consistent with his or her actions.

Question 24

Encoding

Answer 24

Putting new information into memory. Occurs through Visual encoding, acoustic encoding, and semantic (being put into a meaningful context) encoding. With semantic encoding, the more vivid the context the better.

Question 25

Automatic processing

Answer 25

All the information in the environment that is gained without effort. Controlled processing involves active memorization (studying for the MCAT)- Can become automatic after knowing the new information well enough that you dont have to think about it.

Question 26

Self-reference effect

Answer 26

We recall info best when we can put it into the context of our own lives

Question 27

Maintenance rehersal

Answer 27

Repetition of a piece of info to keep it in working memory or to store it in short term and eventually long term memory.

Question 28

Method of loci

Answer 28

A mnemonic that involves associating each item in a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized.

Question 29

Peg-word system

Answer 29

Mnemonic that associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers. (one-sun, two-shoe, ect.)

Question 30

Chucnking

Answer 30

Taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

Question 31

Sensory memory

Answer 31

Memory that lasts a short time and consists of iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.

Question 32

Short-term memory

Answer 32

Fades quickly, but over the course of 30 seconds without rehearsal. Limited to the 7 plus or minus 2 rule. Can be increased by clustering information and duration of short-term memory extended by using maintenance rehearsal

Question 33

Working memory

Answer 33

Related to short-term memory. Enables us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness and be able to manipulate the info. Also integrates attention and executive function.

Question 34

Long-term memory

Answer 34

Short-term memory moves to long term through elaborative rehearsal. (involves adding onto previous knowledge in our memory bank- ideas more closely related to our lives are more likely going to find their way into long term memory)

Question 35

Implicit memory

Answer 35

Part of long term memory that involves skills and conditioned responses

Question 36

Explicit memory

Answer 36

Part of long term memory that involves memories that require conscious recall. Divided into semantic (the facts we know) recall and episodic memory (our experiences).

Question 37

Recognition

Answer 37

A type of retrieval that involves identifying a piece of info that was previously learned.

Question 38

Relearning

Answer 38

A type of retrieval that shows that certain info is already in long term memory. Involves spacing effect: the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the info later on

Question 39

Semantic network

Answer 39

Concepts in the brain are linked based on similar meaning. Activates spreading activation: when one node of semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts around it are unconsciously activated.

Question 40

Priming

Answer 40

Retrieval cue in which recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

Question 41

Context effects

Answer 41

Retrieval cue in which memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place.

Question 42

State-dependent memory

Answer 42

You can remember things better in the mood at which you learned them. For example, people who learn facts or skills while intoxicated will show better recall when performing those same tasks while intoxicated.

Question 43

Serial position effect

Answer 43

Retrieval cue that appears while learning lists- participants show better recall for the first few and the last few items on the list. Primacy (early items) and recency (late items) effects exist.

Question 44

Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 44

Degenerative disease due to neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques. Can involve sundowning (dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening)

Question 45

Korsakoff’s syndrome

Answer 45

Memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. Retrograde and anterograde amnesia are characteristic along with confabulation (creating vivid but fabricated memories)

Question 46

Proactive Interference

Answer 46

Retrieval error caused by existence of other info; In proactive it is old info interfering with new learning.

Question 47

Retroactive interference

Answer 47

New info causes forgetting of old info. Can be prevented by reducing the number of interfering events (studying right before going to bed)

Question 48

Prospective memory

Answer 48

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future. Mostly intact for older adults, while time-based memory is not that great.

Question 49

Misinformation effect

Answer 49

Conflicting information presented can get in the way of previous memories and change those memories. Also, if asking someone about a memory, providing a leading question can cause the response to be overstated.

Question 50

Source amnesia

Answer 50

Memory construction error in which a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained. Someone might here something happening to someone else, but then recalls it happening to themselves.

Question 51

Neuroplasticity

Answer 51

Neural connections form rapidly in response to a stimuli. Adult brains are much less plastic than childrens brains.

Question 52

Synaptic pruning

Answer 52

As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains ability to process info.

Question 53

Long-term potentialation

Answer 53

Responsible for the conversion of short-term to long term memory. Involves the strengthening of neuronal connections resulting from increased NT release and adding of receptor sites.