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Human Physiology II > CH13 - Respiratory System > Flashcards

CH13 - Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

cellular respiration (breakdown of glucose, producing CO2, etc.)

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2
Q

What is external respiration?

A

respiration that is anything outside of the cell

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3
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

blood delivered from heart to lungs

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4
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

blood delivered to tissues/everywhere else in the body (delivering O2 + picking up CO2 at tissues)

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5
Q

Name the conducting airways.

A

trachea + bronchi + bronchioles

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6
Q

Where does gas exchange happen (the respiratory surface/airway)?

A

alveoli

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7
Q

What are the purpose of conducting airways?

A

trying to get air to the (gas) exchanging area/lungs

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8
Q

As the # of airways increase, their diameter ____

A

decreases

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9
Q

What type of epithelial cell allows for efficient gas exchange at the respiratory tissue?

A

squamous cells, flattened/squished thin cells that make it easy to exchange gases

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10
Q

What cells produce mucus?

A

goblet cells, secrete mucus to the surface of the epithelium

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11
Q

Is there mucus in the respiratory zone?

A

no, would interfere with gas exchange

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12
Q

What is the purpose of mucus + cilia in the conducting airways?

A

-mucus: engulfs foreign matter
-cilia: helps move the mucus up and out of the airways

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13
Q

Interaction between cilia and mucus is called?

A

mucociliary escalator

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14
Q

Purpose of elastic fibers in conducting airways?

A

keep airways stretchy (less in the respiratory zone)

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15
Q

Is smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

involuntary

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16
Q

Purpose of cartilage in conducting airways?

A

-prevent collapse of airway tubes with larger diameter (soft tissue, move air through)
-less/no cartilage in bronchioles b/c smaller diameter

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17
Q

What conducting airway is bilateral?

A

bronchus/bronchi

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18
Q

Purpose of smooth muscle in conducting airways?

A

allow change in diameter of airway tubes (mostly bronchioles, less rigid/less cartilage)

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19
Q

How does smooth muscle ultimately control how much air gets to the gas exchange surface?

A

-bronchoconstriction = narrower tube, less air in
-bronchodilation = wider tube, more air in

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20
Q

The bigger the airway hole, the _______ the air moves.

A

faster

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21
Q

What surrounds the alveoli all around on the outside?

A

capillaries - tiny blood vessels (more efficient exchange, want to exchange as much gas as we can)

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22
Q

Why is there epithelium lining the blood vessels that surround the alveoli?

A

provides a flat skinny surface, to prevent ruining the alveolus

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23
Q

How is gas exchanged at the alveoli?

A

-O2 from alveoli travels to the blood vessels
-CO2 from the blood travels to the lungs

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24
Q

What are type I alveolar cells?

A

flattened squamous cells that allow for easy gas exchange

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25
Q

What do type II alveolar cells produce?

A

surfactants

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26
Q

Purpose of surfactants?

A

prevent/loosen the interaction b/n water molecules around the alveolus, thus preventing alveolus collapse

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27
Q

What is quiet/normal/passive breathing?

A

breathing that occurs without trying

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28
Q

What is active/forced breathing?

A

controlled breathing

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29
Q

How much of quiet inhalation is due to the diaphragm?

A

70%

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30
Q

Is the lung a muscle?

A

NO, series of epithelium tissue + elastic fibers — instead, surrounded by muscle so it can stretch

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31
Q

What is the main muscle that changes the shape+size of the thoracic cavity?

A

diaphragm

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32
Q

Explain what the muscles involved in quiet inhalation do.

A

-diaphragm: contracts, moves DOWNWARD, increasing chest cavity
-external intercostal muscles: above the diaphragm, lifts the ribcage so the ribs can separate/stretch a bit

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33
Q

Explain what the muscles involved in quiet exhalation do.

A

-diaphragm: RELAXES back to original position
-external intercostal muscles: relax

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34
Q

Explain the additional muscles involved in forced inhalation.

A

-accessory muscles (scalenes + sternocleidomastoid) –> contract, lift the ribcage and connect head+neck to the ribcage

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35
Q

What muscles are involved in forced exhalation?

A

internal intercostal + abdominal muscles
-internal intercostal muscles: contract, bring ribs back closer together

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36
Q

What are the lungs attached to and how?

A

the thoracic wall by a double membrane (pleural membranes)

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37
Q

The parietal pleura is attached to the _____?

A

thoracic wall

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38
Q

The visceral pleura is attached to the _____?

A

lung

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39
Q

What is in between the pleural membranes?

A

the pleural space which is filled with pleural fluid

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40
Q

The thoracic wall allows for the lungs to ______

A

stretch

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41
Q

What is the function of the pleural fluid?

A

-it reduces the friction between the pleural membranes moving against each other
-helps attach the lungs to the thoracic cavity/wall

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42
Q

What are the two pleural membranes called and what do they attach to?

A

-visceral —> attached to lung
-parietal —> attached to thoracic wall

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43
Q

What allows air to flow in the lungs?

A

change in pressure

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44
Q

If pleural pressure = 0, it is equal to…?

A

the atmospheric pressure —> not likely b/c the pleural membranes are in a closed system

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45
Q

If alveolar/pleural pressure is positive/negative, it is _____/_____ than atmospheric pressure.

A

greater/less

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46
Q

Why is pleural pressure mostly -5mmHg — specifically, why is it mostly/always negative?

A

-lungs stretch out and want to go inward
-thoracic wall wants to go outward
-pull away from each other, creating negative pressure

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47
Q

What is alveolar pressure and what values can it take on?

A

-pressure inside the alveoli/lung
-exposed to atmosphere, therefore can be +, -, or 0

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48
Q

What is equation for the Law of LaPlace?

A

P = 2T/r

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49
Q

What are the main ideas of the Law of LaPlace & alveolar stability?

A

-with surfactants, different sized alveoli have equal (collapsing) pressure
-with surfactants, the smaller radius alveoli has less surface tension b/c the surfactants are packed together tightly (more surfactant per area)
-without surfactants, the different sized alveoli have equal surface tension – but only the smaller radius alveoli would collapse

50
Q

What is pneumothorax?

A

-lung collapse
-breaks open/severs pleural space (breaking connection between chest wall and lung, pleural pressure = 0)

51
Q

An example of traumatic pneumothorax.

A

-puncture wound in chest wall (maybe got into a car accident, broken rib punctures pleural space)

52
Q

An example of spontaneous pneumothorax.

A

-just happens by chance
-could be from pulmonary disease
-can be minor (sealed back itself if not exposed to atmosphere)

53
Q

What is Boyle’s Law?

A

-P1V1=P2V2
-more volume = less pressure (and vice versa)

54
Q

Gas goes from ____ to ____ pressure.

A

high to low pressure

55
Q

How does pressure change happen in the lungs (3 steps)?

A

1) size+shape of thoracic cavity/lungs changes
2) pressure changes
THEN
3) air can flow

56
Q

If P-alveolar = P-atmosphere, then…?

A

-nothing happens
-cannot breathe, no pressure gradient

57
Q

What is compliance?

A

-ability of lungs to stretch outwards
-poor compliance = harder to breathe in

58
Q

What is recoil?

A

-ability of lungs to go back to original position
-poor recoil = harder to breathe out

59
Q

HIGH surface tension = ____ compliance.

A

-low compliance = less able to stretch/harder to inflate lungs

60
Q

During inhalation, how is a pressure gradient created, so air can flow in the lungs?

A

-diaphragm contracts (goes downward), increasing volume
-thus pressure decreases — pressure negative in lungs
-lower pressure in lungs, higher in atmosphere = air flows IN

61
Q

During exhalation, how is a pressure gradient created, so air can flow OUT of the lungs?

A

-diaphragm relaxes to original position, decreasing volume
-thus, pressure increases — alveolar pressure becomes positive
-higher pressure in lungs, lower pressure in atmosphere = air flows OUT

62
Q

Describe the respiratory cycle for passive breathing (one full inhalation, one full exhalation).

A

A) before inspiration:
-P-A (P-A is alveolar pressure) equals zero (thus, PA = P-atmosphere)
-P-pl (P-pl is pleural pressure) is negative
-not exchanging air (NO pressure gradient)

B) inspiration onset:
-contraction happens: increasing volume, thus P-A goes down (P-A = -1)
-pressure gradient (P-A < P-atmosphere), air can flow IN
-P-pl stays negative

C) end-inspiration:
-volume increased (stopped breathing in, before expiration starts)
-P-A = 0
-P-pl at lowest point (lags behind, sealed space)

D) expiration onset:
-thoracic muscles relax: decreasing volume, thus P-A increases (P-A = +1)
-pressure gradient (P-A > P-atmosphere), air can flow OUT
-P-pl less negative

63
Q

Pleural pressure is more negative during inhalation or exhalation?

A

inhalation

64
Q

________ pressure, in part, determines how fast the air will flow.

A

alveolar

65
Q

The ______ the pressure gradient, the faster the diffusion (the air flows).

A

bigger/steeper

66
Q

The rate of change (ROC) of volume is…

A

how quickly air can flow in/out of lungs

67
Q

If ACTIVE breathing… alveolar pressure would be ________ (more/less) negative during inhalation, and _______ (more/less) positive during exhalation, and the ROC would be ________ (faster/slower) b/c the pressure gradient would be even ________ (bigger/smaller)

A

more, more, faster, bigger

68
Q

The amount of air that can move through a tube is influenced by __________ ____________

A

airway diameter

69
Q

Flow is proportional to changes in __________

A

pressure

70
Q

What is resistance and how is it related to airflow?

A

-resistance is from the sides of the airway tubes themselves – mucus + cilia creates friction
-works AGAINST airflow, and is INVERSELY proportional to it (more resistance = less flow)

71
Q

Which airways have the most resistance?

A

conducting airways b/c they have more structure (more simple = less resistance)

72
Q

Which airways can change diameter?

A

-bronchioles (little/none cartilage, high in smooth muscle)
-bronchoconstriction
-bronchodilation

73
Q

Exchange occurs ______ and where?

A

-twice
-1) between the lungs/alveolus and blood
-2) between the blood and the tissues/cell
(oxygenated blood: lungs –> blood –> tissues)

74
Q

Gases largely diffuse due to the difference in their ______ _________

A

partial pressures
-PO2
-PCO2
-air = mixture of O2 + CO2

75
Q

Gases go _____ their individual partial pressure gradients

A

down
-example: O2 flows down PO2 gradient

76
Q

What things influence diffusion across a membrane?

A

-1) pressure/concentration gradients (high –> low)… the steeper the gradient, the faster the diffusion
-2) permeability
-3) surface area (large SA = faster diffusion – alveoli have clusters to increase SA)
-4) membrane thickness (less thick/thin membrane = faster diffusion)

77
Q

Partial Pressure = P-atm x _______

A

% of gas

78
Q

P-atm ~

A

760 mmHg

79
Q

Air is ___% O2, so PO2 = ______ mmHg.

A

-21% O2
-PO2 = 160 mmHg

80
Q

Air is ALWAYS 21% O2, so why does oxygen content change with elevation?

A

-increase elevation = DECREASE P-atm
(oxygen is still 21% of air)

81
Q

What are the values of the partial pressures in the lungs?

A

-PO2 = 100 mmHg
-PCO2 = 40 mmHg

82
Q

What are the values of the partial pressures in the blood, after exchange (oxygenated)?

A

-PO2 = 100 mmHg
-PCO2 = 40 mmHg

83
Q

What are the values of the partial pressures in the blood, before exchange (blood approaching lungs)?

A

-PO2 = 40 mmHg
-PCO2 = 46 mmHg

84
Q

-What are the values of the partial pressures in the tissue/cell?
-Really active tissues use _____ (more/less) O2 and make _____ (more/less) CO2.

A

-PO2 < 40 mmHg
-PCO2 > 46 mmHg
-more, more

85
Q

CO2 is _____ (more/less) soluble in blood compared to O2.

A

less

86
Q

____% of O2 in blood is bound to Hb.

A

98%

87
Q

____% of O2 is dissolved in plasma.

A

2%

88
Q

What is plasma? Why don’t we carry O2 in it?

A

-liquid portion of blood
-saturates with O2 very quickly, only 2% of O2 stays dissolved in plasma (thus, can’t carry a lot of O2)

89
Q

What is the equation that shows how O2 binds to Hb near the lungs? What is this called when O2 is bound directly to Hb?

A

-O2 + Hb –> Hb.O2
-Hb.O2 = oxyhemoglobin

90
Q

How does O2 bind to Hb near the lungs?

A

-1) O2 into plasma, gets filled up (only 2% dissolved)
-2) O2 diffuses into RBC
-3) when RBC gets saturated, O2 binds to Hb specifically

91
Q

Where does O2 dissociate from Hb and what is the equation?

A

-at the cell/tissues
-Hb.O2 –> Hb + O2
-cells use free O2 (can’t use bound form), so O2 dissociates from Hb

92
Q

O2 binding to Hb + dissociating from it is a _________ process, and depends on __________

A

reversible, PO2

93
Q

What molecules can bind to Hb?

A

-O2
-CO2
-H+ ions
-CO

94
Q

What molecule competes with O2 for the same Hb binding site? Why is it deadly?

A

-CO (carbon monoxide)
-binds better (more preference) and non-reversibly to the site –> O2 can’t bind, therefore deadly

95
Q

Does CO2 have the same Hb binding site as O2? How can [CO2] affect the ability to carry O2?

A

-no, different –> but when it binds changes conformation of Hb (thus, high [CO2] can affect ability to carry O2)

96
Q

Hb is made up of _____ globular proteins, which each carry a ______ group.

A

four, heme

97
Q

Each Hb heme group has an _______

A

iron

98
Q

What part of Hb actually binds O2?

A

iron

99
Q

Each iron carries ___ oxygen, so for one Hb molecule how many O2 can you bind?

A

-one
-can bind 4 O2 for one Hb (100% saturated – rare, average for ALL Hb is 98%)

100
Q

Explain how binding O2 to Hb changes conformation and affinity.

A

-bind first O2 to first heme group = changes conformation, so its easier to bind the 2nd O2
-2nd O2 binds = changes conformation, so its easier to bind the 3rd O2
-etc.
-cooperative binding of O2

101
Q

PO2 = 100 mmHg where?

A

alveoli

102
Q

PO2 = 40 mmHg where?

A

resting cell

103
Q

As you move away from the lungs, percent O2 saturation of Hb (sO2) _____ (increases/decreases).

A

decreases, but not by a lot —> thus, can give away O2, but still have lots of storage

104
Q

Explain how PO2 (x-axis) on the oxygen dissociation curve tells you where the tissue is.

A

-right of x-axis (higher #) = near the lungs/arterial blood
-40 mmHg = venous blood, O2 used up
-far left (20 mmHg) = active strenuous exercise, metabolizing faster, thus using O2 faster

105
Q

Why is the oxygen dissociation curve steep?

A

-due to the cooperative binding of O2
-conformational change as each Hb site binds O2, its easier to bind the next O2 (steep increase in sO2)
-1st O2 hardest to bind, 3rd/4th easiest

106
Q

Why does the oxygen dissociation curve of someone with anemia look the same as a normal one? Essentially, how do they have 100% saturation but poor O2 content?

A

-have less sites for O2 to bind to, but still can be saturated (bind all the O2 to these sites)
-more likely to have 100% saturation b/c they have less sites

107
Q

What is anemia?

A

-some sort of shortage of O2 in the blood
-ex. low RBC/Hb

108
Q

What type of curve is better to understand the oxygen content of someone with anemia?

A

oxygen concentration curve

109
Q

What is a right-shift of the oxygen dissociation curve typically associated with? What is the “advantage” of this right-shift?

A

-increased metabolism
-advantage: at given PO2, have lower saturation –> more free O2 available for tissues

110
Q

What can cause a right-shift in the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

1) increased PCO2 (ex. strenuous exercise, need more O2 + make more CO2 as byproduct)
-the higher the [CO2], the more easily Hb offloads O2
2) increased acidity (lower pH, high [CO2] can cause this)
3) increased body temp
4) increased 2,3-BPG

111
Q

Do we want oxygen to stay stored in Hb? Why or why not?

A

-NO
-have to let O2 go so we can use it –> has to dissociate as free oxygen

112
Q

A right-shifted oxygen dissociation curve is associated with ________ (higher/lower) affinity for O2.

A

lower

113
Q

A left-shifted oxygen dissociation curve is associated with ______ (higher/lower) affinity for O2.

A

higher

114
Q

What are the three ways to transport CO2?

A

1) 5-10% in plasma
2) 5-10% on Hb
3) 80-90% as bicarbonate ion

115
Q

What does carbonic acid (H2CO3) get converted to in the body?

A

H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate)

116
Q

What enzyme catalyzes the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate (and the reverse)? Give the equation.

A

-carbonic anhydrase
-CO2 + H2O —> (H2CO3) —> H+ + HCO3-

117
Q

Explain how CO2 from the tissue/cells is transported through systemic circulation.

A

-1) Small amount of dissolved CO2 in plasma and RBC
-2) CO2 binds to Hb (reversible): CO2 + Hb –> HbCO2
-3) CO2 converted to bicarbonate by Carbonic Anhydrase: CO2 + H2O –> H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3-
-4) H+ can bind to Hb: Hb + H+ –> HbH
-5) Transporter protein: excess HCO3- moved out, Cl- moved in –> chloride shift

118
Q

How is HCO3- moved out of the cell during systemic circulation? What is this called? Explain why this happens.

A

-transporter protein moves HCO3- out the cell, while bringing Cl- inside the cell
-called the chloride shift
-why? to get rid of HCO3- as RBC becomes saturated with it (thus, can no longer convert CO2) + move Cl- inside cell to maintain electrical balance

119
Q

Explain how CO2 is breathed out near the lungs through pulmonary circulation.

A

-exactly reverse process compared to systemic circulation
-1) CO2 (and H+) dissociate from Hb –> dissolved CO2
-2) Bicarbonate and H+ converted back to CO2 by carbonic anhydrase: HCO3- + H+ –> H2CO3 –> CO2 + H2O
-3) Transporter protein: HCO3- moved back in, Cl- moved OUT –> reverse chloride shift
-4) End up with dissolved CO2 (from RBC + plasma) to breathe out of lungs

120
Q

Why is there a time-lag/delay between onset of inspiration and end of inspiration?

A

takes time to reach max volume (full of air)

Human Physiology II (3 decks)

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