Ch. 8 - Blood/Immunity Flashcards
1
Q
What type of tissue is blood? Why?
A
Connective Tissue: it links the body’s vital organs.
2
Q
What does blood consist of (two distinct elements)? What are the subcategories of each?
A
- Plasma
- Water
- Dissolved GASES
- Proteins
- NUTRIENTS
- Sugars
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- HORMONES
- WASTE Products - Formed Portion/Cellular Component
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
3
Q
What are the four main components of blood?
A
- Plasma
- White blood cells
- Red blood cells
- Platelets
4
Q
What is plasma?
A
Mainly water with dissolved materials.
5
Q
How much of our blood is composed of plasma?
A
~55% of the volume
6
Q
Plasma contains three types of plasma proteins—what do they do?
A
- Albumins (for osmotic pressure; maintain H2O levels)
- Globulins (produce antibodies)
- Fibrinogen (inactive, used for blood clotting)
7
Q
What is another name for red blood cells? Name of their shape?
A
Erythorycytes: biconcave
8
Q
How much blood is composed of RBCs?
A
44% of total volume
9
Q
What are RBCs specialized for?
A
Oxygen transport and carbon dioxide transport
10
Q
What allows RBCs to carry oxygen so well?
A
- Mature mammalian RBCs have no nucleus
- Each cell instead has about 280 million iron-containing hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen
11
Q
In what conditions are RBCs produced?
A
In response to lower levels of O2 reaching tissues.
12
Q
What is polycythemia?
A
Condition of having more than normal number of RBCs. Often happens if one lives in a higher altitude.
13
Q
Where are RBCs produced? What is their life span? What breaks them down?
A
Production: bone marrow
Lifespan: ~120 days
Broken down: spleen/liver
14
Q
What is hemoglobin?
A
Specialized respiratory pigment (of iron) that chemically binds with O2, and diffuses O2 into needed cells.
Also takes some CO2 that diffusing into blood from other cells.
Can also carry H.
15
Q
Why is hemoglobin important?
A
Important on delivering O2 to tissues and cells. Takes some CO2 to lungs.
16
Q
What is anemia?
A
- Too few red blood cells
- Too little hemoglobin in red blood cells
17
Q
What is the result of anemia?
A
Oxygen deficiency in the body
18
Q
What are the symptoms of anemia?
A
Fatigue and pale skin.
19
Q
What causes anemia?
A
Lack of iron in the diet.
20
Q
What is sickle cell anemia?
A
- Genetic (hereditary) disorder that causes the red blood cells to be misshapen or mishape
- Don’t function properly; easier to get stuck = risks of clots, heart attack, stroke
(- Often of African descent are people that have it)
21
Q
What is another name for white blood cells?
A
Leukoycytes
22
Q
How much of blood is composed of WBSs?
A
WBC : RBC = 1 : 100
~1%
23
Q
What do white blood cells look like?
A
All WBC have nuclei and are colourless.
24
Q
What are white blood cells responsible for?
A
Body’s immune response.
25
Leukocytes are divided into numerous groups. What are they?
- Granulocytes
-> Neutrophils
-> Eosinophils
-> Basophils
- Agranulocytes
-> Monocytes
-> Lymphocytes (into B cells, T cells)
26
What are granulocytes? What are the type that is most common? 2nd most common? Where are they produced and matured? What is their function? Lifespan?
- Cells with granules
- Lobed nuclei (more than one) that are phagocytic and engulf foreign particles
-> Produce/mature in the bone marrow
- Neutrophils are the most numerous, then eosinophils, and basophils
Few hours or a few days.
27
What is phagocytosis? (phagocytic)
A type of immune cell that can surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, and remove dead cells.
28
What are agranulocytes? Where are they produced, matured, and activated? What is their function? Two types?
- Cells without granules
- Vary in function
- Produce and matured in bone marrow (except T-cells, matured in the thymus gland)
Lymphocytes and Monocytes
Lymphocytes are always activated in lymph nodes, whereas monocytes can be.
29
What are monocytes? What is their lifespan? Where are they produced?
Phagocytes (under the agranulocytes category) that engulf foreign particles, and can become macrophages.
Few hours to few days, produced in the bone marrow.
30
What are lymphocytes? What can they be split into? Where are they produced?
Vast range of cells and functions. B-cells produce antibodies. T-cells assist in instructing and suppresing (and for memory).
Specialization depends on where they mature: B-cells or T-cells (red bone marrow/thymus)
31
What are B-cells under lymphocytes?
Created and matured in the bone marrow, and produce antibodies.
Activated in lymph nodes.
32
What are T-cells under lymphocytes?
Created in bone marrow, matured in the thymus gland near the heart, and are cytotoxic and kill directly. Also assist in instructing and suppresing and for memory.
Activated in lymph nodes.
33
What are platelets and how do they form? Where do they form? Lifespan?
Fragments of cells that form when larger cells in the bone marrow breaks apart.
Red bone marrow, lungs.
2-8 days.
34
What is another name for platelets?
Thrombocytes
35
What is different about platelets?
- No nucleus
- Short lifespan and break down quickly in the blood
36
What is the key role of platelets?
- Play a key role in clotting
- Prevents blood loss
37
The process of blood clotting can be explained in four steps. What's step one?
- Clotting occurs when platelets touch a rough surface
- Releases a chemical that reacts with several others in the plasma
- Forms thromboplastin
38
The process of blood clotting can be explained in four steps. What's step two?
- Thromboplastin catalyses the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
39
The process of blood clotting can be explained in four steps. What's step three?
Thrombin catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (an insoluble material), forming a mesh around the injured area.
40
The process of blood clotting can be explained in four steps. What's step four?
RBC's are trapped (with WBC too), in the mesh, which forms a clot.
41
Other than internal cells, what else helps the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin?
Air; and the clotting sequence is also dependent on the presence of calcium ions in the blood.
42
Although clotting preserves life, it can also be life threatening. What are some problems that could occur due to blood clotting?
- (Cerebral/Coronary) Thrombus
- Embolus
43
What is a thrombus and why is it dangerous?
Clot that blocks blood vessel.
Cerebral thrombosis can cause a stroke.
Coronary thrombosis can cause heart attacks.
44
What is an Embolus?
Dislodged blood clot (Thrombus). Very dangerous, as a clot could be lodged in a vital organ.
Ex: Cerebral/Coronary/pulmonary can be life threatening
45
What is capillary fluid exchange?
Refers to the exchange of fluid that occurs across the capillary membrane between the blood and the interstitial fluid.
46
What is interstitial fluid or extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Cells are bathed in ECF and any materials exchanged between capillaries and cells must pass through this fluid. Fluid around cells.
*We're mostly fluids, and diffusion and preventing dehydrations takes place here.*
47
What are the three sections in capillaries? Where does the exchange of materials in capillary fluid exchange take place?
Arterial end, mid-section, venous end.
Takes place in the mid-section.
48
In capillary fluid exchange nutrients and wastes move due to:
Diffusion
[H] to [L]
49
Water moves to two main forces in capillary fluid exchange: (and explain)
- Blood pressure forces water out of the capillary; **filtration**
- Osmotic pressure draws water back to capillaries (because of blood proteins); **absorption**
50
What is outward movement from capillaries called?
Filtration
51
What is inward movement to capillaries called?
Absorption
52
What is the concentration like between capillaries and cells?
In the capillaries, there is high O2, and the ECF has low O2, and the cell has even lower O2.
53
What is edema?
A buildup of fluid in the ECF (in tissues). Swelling caused by too much fluid trapped in the body's tissues
54
What is edema caused by?
- Inflammation
- Lack of plasma proteins (signs of starvation)
- Loss of proteins from capillaries into ECF (because of histamines)
55
What happens to excess fluid that accumulates in the ECF?
Normally picked up by the lymphatic system.
56
What are two blood disorders?
- Hemophilia
- Leukemia
-> Myeloid
-> Lymphoid
57
What is Hemophilia?
- Result of insufficient clotting proteins in the blood
- Severe Hemophilia are in constant danger of bleeding to death
- treatment of injections of protein called Factor VII
- Often caused by incest
58
What is Leukemia? What are the two main types?
- Cancer of white blood cells
- Improper function
Myeloid and Lymphoid
59
What is myeloid?
An overproduction of leukocytes that are immature and thus cannot fight infection.
They crowd out RBCs.
60
What is Lymphoid?
Cancer of lymphocytes, and thus, cannot produce antibodies.
61
What is the treatment to Leukemia?
- Blood transfusions
- Chemotherapy
- Bone marrow transplants
62
What is the lymphatic system?
A network of vessels and associated glands and nodes that extend throughout the body.
Parallel to body and serve as drainage ditches that pick up dead stuff and extra fluid.
63
What does the lymphatic system do?
Maintaining a balance of fluids in the body AND immunity.
64
What does the lymphatic system collect?
Collects a colourless fluid called lymph.
Extra dead bacteria and cells too.
65
What is lymph made up of?
Interstitial fluid and plasma. Lots of (dead) leukocytes.
66
What happens as blood passes through the capillaries? (lymphatic system related)
Some plasma escapes and becomes part of interstitial fluid.
67
What happens to interstitial fluid (and merges) after it escapes the capillaries?
Rather than re-entering capillaries, much of this interstitial fluid is absorbed into the vessels of the lymphatic system.
68
What are lymph capillaries?
Lymph collects in these close-ended tubes, in capillary beds. Then, it travels to lymph vessels.
Tiny weaves (almost intertwined within capillaries).
69
What are lymph vessels?
Larger ducts, that carry lymph and also if needed empty to large veins near the heart to mix lymph back into general blood circulation.
70
What are lacteals?
Specialized lymph capillaries in the intestinal villi that carry digeisited fats throughout the body.
71
What are lymph nodes?
A small bean-shaped structure that is part of the body's immune system. Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.
Then it returns fluid back to bloodstream through major veins.
72
Where are lymph nodes found?
At intervals along lymph vessels.
73
What do lymph nodes do?
- Filter lymph
- Provide (make/store) lymphocytes
- Play a role in immunity
- Own system for lipid transport
74
How does lymph move around the body?
No pumping apparatus exists in the lymphatic system.
- Relies on outside forces (muscle action)
- Why exercising during sick might be a good idea.
75
What matures in lymph nodes?
White blood cells, lymphocytes, mature in lymph nodes.
Sometimes monocytes.
76
What else do lymph nodes also contain?
Bacteria-eating macrophages.
77
What are macrophages?
A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells.
Can be many of the types of white blood cells previously listed:
- Granulocytes
- Monocytes
78
What happens to lymph nodes when you are ill?
Swell, especially under jawbone, or under arms, as white blood cells activity increased.
79
What does the spleen do and why is it important?
Related to the lymphatic system.
- Destruction, production, storage, filtration of blood
- Holds, releases, specialized lymphocytes (T/B cells)
80
What does the thymus (gland) do and why is it important?
Related to the lymphatic system.
- Located in the chest between aorta/sternum
- Large in fetal/early life, becomes smaller after puberty
- Produces lymphocytes of T-cells
81
What does the tonsils do and why is it important?
Related to the lymphatic system.
- Lymphatic tissue forms a protective ring around the entrance to esophagus and respiratory tract.
82
What is innate immunity/non-specific immunity and how many lines of defence are there? What are some examples of these defences?
- Recognition of traits shared by a broad range of pathogens, using a small set of receptors
- Rapid response
**2 lines**
Examples: (barrier) skin, mucous, secretions; (internal) phagocytic, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response (but remember, not T-cells or B-cells!)
83
What does the defence system defend against? How many lines are there in all?
Pathogens, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
**Three lines**
84
What is the first line of defence? What is the largest barrier with its characteristics? Examples?
Skin, mucus, stomach acid, cilia in respiratory tract, lysosomes (enzymes in tears/saliva)
The largest barrier is: the skin
-> The outer layer is relatively dry, with indigestible/waterproof keratin
-> Skin's oil has bactericides and perspiration that is acidic, making it inhospitable for microbial growth
85
What is the second line of defence? Examples and process?
Inflammatory response from...
- Non-specific immunity is present at birth and treats all foreign substances in much the same way, ex: fever
- Damaged cells release histamines which cause capillary leakage
- WBCs can pass through pores of capillaries, seek out foreign invaders, and eat them up through phagocytosis
- Granulocytes are the primary WBCs involved. monocytes join in and become enlarged macrophages
(normally WBCs are too big to diffuse)
86
What is the third line of defence? What are the two types of response in this?
Specific Immunity:
- Recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens, using a vast array of receptors
- Slower response
Humoral and cell-mediated
A complex process by which the body recognizes antigens from bacteria, toxins, or vital coats (all pathogens).
- The response involves both antibodies produced to bind to foreign proteins and phagocytosis.
87
What is a humoural response?
Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids.
(Humoral immunity produces antigen-specific antibodies and is primarily driven by B cells.)
88
What is a cell-mediated response?
Cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells.
(Cell-mediated immunity on the other hand does not depend on antibodies for its adaptive immune functions and is primarily driven by mature T cells, macrophages and the release of cytokines in response to an antigen.)
89
What two types of lymphocytes are involved in the adaptive immune response?
T-cells and B-cells
90
What are antibodies?
Specialized y-shaped proteins that recognize foreign substances and act to neutralize or destroy them.
91
What are antigens?
(Marker) proteins used for identification found on the surface of cells and pathogens.
92
What is the antigen-antibody complex?
- Antibodies bind to antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex.
- Makes invaders more conspicuous, "destroyed", and easier to engulf by circulating macrophages
- Most antibodies are specific and bind only to one type of antigen
93
What are killer T cells (cytotoxic) in immunity?
Destroy any of the body's own cells that have been taken over by viruses (and the pathogens with it).
94
What are helper T cells in immunity?
Detect the antigen (recognizable part of the invader) and instruct B cells to make antibodies.
95
What are B cells in immunity?
Make antibodies (instructed by helper T cells).
96
What are suppressor T cells in immunity?
Shut down the immune response when the battle against the pathogen has been won.
97
What are memory T/B cells? Why are they important?
Retain a record of the antigen for future reference.
A second exposure to the same pathogen will be much faster, and stronger (in the production of antibodies).
98
What are macrophages in immunity?
Types of white blood cells that phagocytose some invaders and destroy them.
99
Describe the adaptive immune response steps.
(First, macrophages engulf and partially digest invaders, presenting antigen markers on their membranes)
1. Helper T-cells recognize foreign antigens and send out chemical messengers (**lymphokines**)
2a. Cause B-cells to clone themselves; some form large plasma cells which produce numerous antibodies, some form memory (T/B) cells to remember antigen
2b. Helper T cells activate the natural killer T-cells (cytotoxic T-cells) which:
- puncture cell membrane of foreign cells (bacteria, fungi, protozoans)
- destroy mutated cells
- recognize coats to viruses (which hide in host cells) and destroy the whole cell
- killer T-cells are the main player in cell-mediated immunity
3a(i). Memory cells hold info. about the shape of the foreign antigen so we can produce antibodies more quickly if we invade again. Referred to as secondary immune response.
3a(ii). Antibodies released by the plasma cells bind to antigens that immobilize them and mark them for macrophages to engulf and eliminate. Known as humoural immunity.
3b. Once the battle is over, suppressor T-cells signal the immune system to shut down to ensure minimal damage to its own cells.
100
What are lymphokines?
The chemical messengers when helper T-cells recognize foreign antigens.
101
What is the secondary immune response?
Memory cells hold info. about the shape of the foreign antigen so we can produce antibodies more quickly if we invade again.
102
What are blood types and why are they significant? What are the most specific blood antigens? How to remember?
Red blood cells carry several specific antigens. The most specific blood antigens are from the ABO system and the Rh system.
Match the Blood Type with the antigen in its blood. And then, they produce the other blood type antibody.
103
Antigens on RBC are important when...
Donating blood
104
Antibodies in plasma are important when...
Receiving blood
105
Are antigens or antibodies on RBCs? (in blood types)
Antigens
106
Are antigens or antibodies in plasma? (in blood types)
Antibodies
107
What antigen and antibody does blood type A have?
- "A" antigen on RBC
- "Anti-B" antibody in plasma
108
What antigen and antibody does blood type B have?
- "B" antigen on RBC
- "Anti-A" antibody in plasma
109
What antigen and antibody does blood type AB have?
- "A and B" antigen on RBC
- No antibody in plasma
110
What antigen and antibody does blood type O have?
- No antigen on RBC
- "Anti-A and Anti-B" antibody in plasma
111
What is agglutination?
Antibodies causes agglutination (clotting) if mixed with incompatible blood types---block blood vessels and cause major organ damage.
112
What are Rh factors?
Another blood antigen that is present on the red blood cells of some people.
113
What is Rh+?
Has the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
114
What is Rh-?
Has no Rh antigen on red blood cells.
115
How can Rh factors be changed?
People who are Rh- usually do not have antibodies to the Rh factor (initially, without any disturbance) but their bodies may make them after being exposed to the Rh factor during a blood transfusion or pregnancy (think of a vaccine). May cause damage to baby.
1. **Rh Incompatibility**: This occurs when an Rh- mother is pregnant with an Rh+ fetus. The incompatibility itself is not a problem during a first pregnancy because the mother's and fetus's blood systems are separate. However, during delivery, childbirth, or if there is any other event that causes the fetal blood to mix with the maternal blood, the mother can become sensitized to the Rh factor.
2. **Sensitization**: Once sensitized, the mother's immune system treats Rh+ cells as foreign and produces antibodies against them. These antibodies can cross the placenta in subsequent pregnancies and attack the red blood cells of an Rh+ fetus.
3. **Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)**: The antibodies produced by the Rh- mother can destroy the red blood cells of the Rh+ fetus, leading to a condition called Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN). HDN can result in serious health problems for the fetus and newborn, including jaundice, anemia, heart failure, brain damage, and, in severe cases, death.
116
A person Rh(_) can donate blood to a person who is Rh(_), but should not receive Rh(_) blood.
A person Rh- can donate blood to a person who is Rh+, but should not receive Rh+ blood.
117
Why is Rh factor important?
A person with the Rh-positive factor will not make anti-Rh antibodies. Those with Rh negative factor will not produce the antibodies by itself but only IF exposed to Rh-positive blood (think of a vaccine).
118
What is the universal donor? Why?
O- (can give it to anyone)
Their blood doesn't have any antigens.
119
What is the universal recipient? Why?
AB+ (can receive it from anyone)
Their blood doesn't have antibodies
120
How does the blood donation process work?
- Really a red blood cell donation
- Plasma removed to remove antibodies
121
What are the eight immune system (and one cure) disorders we have to know?
- Autoimmune disorder
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Type 1 diabetes
- Lupus
- Allergies
- Asthma
- AIDS
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
- Vaccines
122
What is an autoimmune disorder?
When T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body's own cells. Suppressor T-cells are supposed to keep them in check.
123
What is rheumatoid arthritis?
Body's own immune system attacks bones, cartilages, tendons, ligaments of joints, which cause deterioration.
124
What is type 1 diabetes?
Immune system attacks its own insulin producing cells in the pancreas.
125
What is lupus?
Accumulation of antigen-antibody complexes that buildup in walls of blood vessels, joints, kidneys, and skin.
A type of autoimmune disorder.
126
What are allergies? What are the two types and which is more common?
- An exaggerated response by the immune system to a harmless material, such as pollen, mould, animal dander.
Acute (more common) & Delayed
127
What are acute allergies? What happens in its process?
Immediate response that occurs within seconds of exposure.
- Triggers the release of histamines = more permeable blood vessels that are more swollen and red
- Cellular fluid is released, runy nose, and watery eyes.
128
What are delayed allergies? What happens in its process?
Slower, longer-lasting response.
Delayed are set off by T-cells sensitized by previous contact with allergen. Examples include jewelry and cosmetic allergies.
129
What is asthma? What is it related to and what type?
Acute reactions to inhaled allergens. They trigger a massive release of histamine, which causes bronchial spasms (leads to lungs) which leads to coughing and wheezing.
Medications are usually anti-inflammatory drugs that open passageways to bronchi.
130
What is AIDS?
(Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
A virus (HIV---human immunodeficiency syndrome) that doesn't leave its coat on the host cell, but hides in helper T-cells, leaving nothing for antibodies to find and attach to.
131
What is multiple sclerosis (MS)?
A disease in which T-cells eat away at the myelin (protective) sheath that covers your nerve cells.
The disorder disrupts communication between your brain and the rest of your body, meaning your nerve signals slow down or stop.
132
What are vaccines?
Dead/weakened forms of virus (although technological advancements inject antigens directly) that allow the body to learn to make antibodies against specific deadly viruses.
133
What is active immunity?
Immunity developed after being exposed to an infection or from getting a vaccine.
134
What is passive immunity?
A type of immunity that occurs when a person is given antibodies rather than making them through his or her own immune system. For example, passive immunity occurs when a baby receives a mother's antibodies through the placenta or breast milk.
135
Why is heart transplants difficult? Relate to blood types.
The heart recognizes the antigens on the organs as foreign, and T-cells attack.
136
What is the role of erythropoietin?
Produced by the kidney when there are low levels of O2 in the blood.
