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psych (1-7 are in own cards) > ch 8-11 > Flashcards

ch 8-11 Flashcards

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1
Q

define memory

A

the mental capacity for retaining an image, concept or knowledge when the stimuli which created it no longer exist in consciousness.

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2
Q

name and describe the processes of memory

A

encoding- process of putting information into a form that will allow

storage- the retention of information overtime

retrieval- the process of location and recovering information from storage so we can become consciously aware and use this information.

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3
Q

define short term memory STM

A

this is a store which receives information from long-term sensory stores, it has a limited capacity of 7+- 2 pieces of information an the duration of approx 12-30 seconds

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4
Q

define Sensory memory

A

This is a very brief memory store. The information enters but it is only transferred to STM when the person pays attention to it

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5
Q

define memory LTM

A

the information is encoded and stored and as long as you know enough about the information then it can be retrieved.

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6
Q

what are neurons role in memory and what are they made up of?

A

The neurons role is to receive, process and trasmit information.

It is made up of:

  • Axons
  • Dentrites
  • Synapses
  • Neurotransmitters
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7
Q

describe the function of the axon, dendrite, synapses and neurotransmitters in the memory process

A

axons- carries information(electrical nerve impulses) toward cells that communicate with a neuron.
the end of each axon releases a neurotransmitter when information is sent down

Neurotransmitter- chemicals that are released from the axon that aids communication across nerve synapses
this takes place across the pre-synaptic and post synaptic cells.

Synapses- this is the connection between two neurons which is where the site of communication is
this consists of the pre and post synaptic cells.

Dentrites- receives information from the post- synaptic neuron to essentially start the process again.
this information travels to the soma (cell body)

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8
Q

what does the myelin sheath do?

A

The myelin sheath covers the axon and insulates it, essentially ‘protecting’ it from other neural messages

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9
Q

The information is being passed in the form of __________ _________ through the soma to the axon

A

Electrical impulses

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10
Q

what are the three changes in the formation of a memory?

A
  1. change in the neurons functions
    there is an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters produced and released in the synaptic gap across the axon terminal
  2. change in the neurons structure
    the number of axons and dentrites increase as they grow ‘bushier’ through the growth of memory.
  3. change in the synapse
    greater synaptic connections
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11
Q

what is the hippocampus?

A

this is a finger sized curved structure that lies in the interior of each of the temporal lobes and is located close to the amygdala.

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12
Q

what are the hippocampus’ functions?

A
  • formation/consolidation of declarative memories
  • episodic and semantic memories
  • transfer memory to storage
  • to LTM
  • works with amygdala to link emotions to memories
  • has a role in spatial memory
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13
Q

what happens to memory if the hippocampus is damaged?

A

Damage does not seriously affect formation or retrieval of implicit memories but it does affect the formation/retrieval of explicit memories
eg H.M study

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14
Q

what are the amygdala’s functions?

A
  • mainly involved in the formation of emotional memories
  • links emotions and emotional responses to explicit memories.
  • enhances ‘memorability’ of an event that is stated as a declarative memory
  • this is because the emotions we have in every day life can trigger the memory and the emotion we were experiencing the time it was formed
  • also involved in the formation of implicit memories
  • Shows why people who have damage to the hippocampus can still know how to do this like ride a bike.
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15
Q

what is explicit memory

A

Explicit memory is the conscious retrieval of memory.

Explicit memory also involves intentional remembering

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16
Q

what is implicit memory

A

Implicit memory includes classical conditioning priming in which memory of one item influences future perception and also procedural memory.

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17
Q

define consolidation

A

refers to the physical changes ( formation and strengthening) of neural connections that occur in neurons shortly after learning which consolidates that new information in the LTM

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18
Q

How much time is needed for information to be transferred from STM to LTM

A

30 minutes

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19
Q

what are the three requirements for a memory to be permanently stored?
explain each of them

A
  • Physical change
  • consolidation mostly happens in the hippocampus which converts info in the STM to LTM
  • STM changes the strength of existing synapses in the brain whereas LTM involves the growth of new connections between neurons
  • no disruption
  • Things like head injures, the amount of attention paid to information or arousal level due to anxiety or alertness can all contribute to making memories less consolidated.
  • information can be lost or completely lost during this process
  • time
  • neural connections that have had more time to strengthen are more likely to be permanently stored
  • Researchers say the process should take at least 30 minutes for the memory to be stored.
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20
Q

why might there be decline in learning and memory in older ages?

A
  • changes in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex after age 60
  • there is also a decline in the bundles of axons that connect different regions of the brain
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21
Q

how does semantic memory change with old age?

A
  • elderly people perform just as well as younger people on semantic memory tasks but may take more time to encode and retrieve the information.
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22
Q

how does episodic memory change with old age?

A
  • older people tend to have episodic memory decline

- Studies suggest that episodic memory is relatively stable up until middle age then there is a sharp decline

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23
Q

how does procedural memory change with old age?

A
  • this rarely changes and lasts a long time despite ageing.

eg old people dont usually forget how to brush their teeth

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24
Q

how does STM change with old age?

A
  • for simple tasks, STM generally does not deteriorate with age
  • memory recently learnt from verbal information is an aspect of memory that is most affected by ageing.
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25
Q

how does working memory change with old age?

A
  • elderly people are more likely to perform poorly than younger people on complex working memory tasks
    eg. dividing their attention like when driving a car
  • Neuroimaging techniques have found that the prefrontal cortex(responsible for working memory) was less active and efficient for people aged 60+
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26
Q

What are some reasons for memory decline for older age

A
  • motivation

- confidence in memory

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27
Q

what are neurodegenerative diseases?

A

these affect memory because they result in degeneration of the patients brain neurons, which means neurons progressively break down and become destroyed.

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28
Q

what is dementia and what is one common type of dementia?

A

Dementia is a disorder affecting higher mental functions

one common type of dementia is Alzheimers disease

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29
Q

what are some symptoms of alzheimers disease?

A
  • Gradual or severe memory loss
  • confusion
  • impaired attention
  • disordered thinking
  • depression
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30
Q

what are the two types of Alzheimers disease?

A

Anterograde Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia

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31
Q

which type of memory is typically affected with alzheimers disease?

A

Declarative memory

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32
Q

what are neurofibrillary tangles?

A

this is symptom of Alzheimers disease, which involves an abnormal build up of protein inside neurons which are associated with the death of brain cells.

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33
Q

define amnesia and what are the two forms of amnesia ?

A

this refers to the inability to remember

its two forms are anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia

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34
Q

what is anterograde amnesia?

A

this refers to the inability to encode and store NEW memories
- the loss of memory for events after the injury, so you can remember events that occurred before the injury happened.

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35
Q

what is retrograde amnesia?

A

this refers to the difficulty in recalling PREVIOUSLY stored memories.
- is the loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury.

36
Q

when may some memories return in retrograde amnesia?

A

when this is caused by head injury such as trauma or a stroke but if it has been caused by diseases such as alzheimers it is unlikely memories will ever be recovered

37
Q

what is the function of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi store model?

A 
it describes :
- sensory memory
- short term memory 
- long term memory
and how they interact with each other
38
Q

what is sensory memory

A
  • This is information from the environment received from our senses
  • if we pay attention to sensory to the stimuli it is then transferred to the STM, otherwise it is forgotten.
39
Q

why do we have sensory memory?

A

due it its unlimited capacity, yet only lasting for a brief duration sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by huge amounts of stimuli.

40
Q

what are two types of sensory memory?

A

iconic and echoic memory

41
Q

what is iconic sensory memory and how long does it last for?

A
  • This refers to memory for visual information and it only lasts for 0.3 seconds
42
Q

what is echoic sensory memory and how long does it last for?

A

this refers to memory for auditory information and has a duration of 3-4 seconds

43
Q

why does echoic memory have a longer duration than sensory memory?

A

this is because sound needs more time for the person to register the information and then further process this information.

44
Q

what are the properties of STM

A

capacity: 7+-2 items
duration: 12-30 seconds

45
Q

Explain STM.

A

This type of memory holds information in awareness for a short period of time, long enough to use for mental tasks. with the aid of attention and rehearsal, STM from transfer to LTM.

46
Q

what are the types of rehearsal related to STM and what does each improve.

A

Chunking and capacity

maintenance and duration

47
Q

how does chunking improve our duration and what is an example in real life?

A

Also known as grouping, chunking expands our STMs duration by occupying less locations which then frees up more locations for more information to be stored.

eg to remember a phone number we remember the numbers in a group of three or four.

48
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal and what happens when we stop this rehearsal?

A

maintenance rehearsal involves simply repeating information over and over but not trying to form meaningful connections between the new information and other information in memory.
when maintenance rehearsal stops, the information will be lost 12-30 second later.

49
Q

name the propeties of long term memory

A

capacity: virtually unlimited
duration: virtually unlimited

50
Q

what is the main type of rehearsal for LTM

A

elaborative rehearsal

51
Q

Describe the process of elaborative rehearsal and provide and example

A

is a process by which we give meaning to new information by linking it to previously stored information in LTM
eg remembering the adolescent sleep wake cycle for psych, you may relate it to your own sleeping patterns

52
Q

what is a piece of evidence to support the muti-store model of memory?

A

The serial position effect

53
Q

what is the serial position effect?

A

this is where the immediate free recall of items at the beginning and end of the list are remembered better than those in the middle of the list.

54
Q

what are the conditions to apply the serial position affect for the most accurate results?

A

there needs to be 20 words or items which have to be similar in characteristics or even better have no significance to the learner.

55
Q

having superior recall for words at the beginning of a list is known as what?

A

primacy effect.

56
Q

having superior recall for words at the end of a list is known as what?

A

recency effect.

57
Q

what are the four major components of Baddeley and hitch’s model of woking memory?

A 
STORAGE
- phonological loop
- visuo - spatial sketchpad 
FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS 
- central executive 
- episodic buffer
58
Q

what is the function of the phonological loop?

A

this is auditory working memory, storage of what we hear.
eg helps us understand a sentence of more then a few words by retaining the words from the beginning of the sentence until we have heard the words at the end

59
Q

what is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

this is responsible for visual STM, storage of what we see

eg this would help you picture what your room would look li8ke if you shifted the furniture around.

60
Q

what are the three main functions of the central executive?

A

inhibition: aspect of attention, filtering out irrelevant material
switching: changing attention from one item to another
updating: modifying items brought in from LTM before re-communicating them to memory through the episodic buffer, creating a process of accommodation of the semantic network

so overall the central executive puts together the sounds and visuals of working memory, controls our attention and enables us to perform mental manipulation of data.

61
Q

what is the function of the episodic buffer?

A
  • helps us retrieve information from LTM to associate with information in working memory
  • selects and encodes information into the LTM
62
Q

what did Craig and Lockhart suggest in terms of their levels of processing theory?

A

they suggested that how long and how well information is stored is dependent on the ‘depth’ at which we process the information

63
Q

what are the three levels of processing proposed by Craig and Lockhart?

A
  • shallow
  • moderate
  • deep
64
Q

Describe a shallow level of processing

A

this involves structural encoding as it focuses on basic physical feature of the stimulus
eg whether letters that flash up on a screen are upper or lower case

this is a very basic level of processing as no meaning is attached to the stimulus

65
Q

Describe a deep level of processing

A

this uses semantic encoding as words are encoded by their meaning by linking new information to previously learnt information that is stored into LTM
eg. when participants in a study was asked to put the words they needed to remember in a sentence, 80% more of the words were retried

66
Q

name and describe the two types of long term memory

A

procedural memory- involves ‘ knowing how to do something’. therefore it is most likely expressed as an action, skill or operation. this memory is very resistant to forgetting.

declarative memory- this is memory of facts, events and general knowledge which is usually connected to higher order thinking. eg reading, “Australia is a country”

67
Q

name and explain the two sub divisions of declarative memory

A

semantic memory- memories of facts or knowledge
very resistant to forgetting
episodic memory- personalized memories of events.
most likely to be forgotten at an older age `

68
Q

what does the semantic network theory propose?

A

this proposes that nodes of information are stored in a hierarchy according to particular concepts.
this hierarchy goes from general (animal) to specific (type of fish eg shark)

69
Q

define forgetting

A

refers to an inability to retrieve, recall or recognize information that was previously stored as memory.

70
Q

explain the forgetting curve by Hermann Ebbinghaus

A

by experimenting on himself ebbinghaus learnt pronounceable syllables and then tested himself until her got a perfect score and again for various periods of time

it was found that forgetting immediately occurs after information has been learnt, and we loose 50% of material within the first hour. Stimuli then slowly decreases if not re-learnt so about 25-30% is retained after 31 days.

71
Q

what are the theories of forgetting?

A
  • retrieval failure theory
  • interference theory
  • motivated forgetting
  • decay theory
72
Q

how does the retrieval failure theory explain forgetting?

A

As the inability to find material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them.

73
Q

what is the tip of the tongue phenomenon?

A

this is knowing that your memory does have the name, item or material you are trying to remember but you can not retrieve it at that moment.
eg listening to a voice on a cartoon movie and trying to remember the name of the voice actor

74
Q

how does the interference theory explain forgetting?

A

refers to difficulties in retrieving information from memory, caused by other material learnt previously or after the material was learnt.

75
Q

what is proactive and retroactive interference and give an example for each

A

proactive: refers to previously learnt information inhibiting our ability to retrieve new material
eg you took jap in yr 7 and do Italian in yr 8 so you may find Italian difficult

retroactive: refers to the tendency for new information to obstruct the retrieval of previously learnt information
eg when remembering a list of names you recall the last names easily but forget the first.

76
Q

how does motivated forgetting explain forgetting?

A
  • suggest that forgetting of LTM occurs because of conscious(suppression) or an unconscious(repression) desire by the individual to block traumatic memories from entering conscious awareness
77
Q

what are some criticisms of motivated forgetting

A
  • there may be other reasons for memory loss, such as an injury to the head
  • in some cases unpleasant events disrupt the biological process of consolidation
  • seemingly repressed memories may actually be false memories
78
Q

how does the decay theory explain forgetting?

A
  • argues that forgetting occurs due to the gradual fading of memory traces ver time due to disuse
79
Q

what are some criticisms of the decay theory

A
  • does not account for why some unused memories fade while others are carried for life
  • it has not been proven that memory traces exist
80
Q

name and describe the measures of recall

A

cued recall- when you are given prompts or cues to assist retrieval
eg the surname is short and begins with an M
free recall- where you must retrieve as much information as you can in any order
eg serial position effect study
serial recall- recalling information in the order in which it was presented

81
Q

define recognition and why is it more accurate than recall

A

refers to identification of the correct information among a list of incorrect information
eg multiple choice
more accurate than recall because it provides more cues to assist retrival

82
Q

what is formula for savings score?

A

(time for original learning) - (time for relearning)*100 / total time for learning

83
Q

what is the difference between state and context dependent cues?

A
  • context aids retrieval by recalling information in the same place or setting in which the information was learnt
    eg police bringing witness to the scene of the crime. whereas state dependent cues are associated with you internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time memory was formed
    eg learning a basketball free throw at a fatigued state to replicate a game
84
Q

what is a mnemonic device?

A

this is a form of elaborative rehearsal where the information is connected to material already in LTM.

85
Q

name and decribe the verbal mnemonics?

A

ACRONYMS
is a word or pronounceable syllable made up of the first letters of the items we are trying to remember.
ACROSTICS
phrases, rhymes or poems in which the first letter of each word serves as a cue to help you retrieve a word or idea that begins with the same letter.
NARRATIVE CHAINING
when a series of items or terms are remembered by incorporating them into a story.

86
Q

why do eyewitness testimonies often fail?

A

when asked to describe a scene and also perpetrators the witness often builds on their own expectations by similar experiences from the past.
This has also become present line-ups, due to reconstructive nature of memories, witnesses will always pick a suspect on the line, no matter if he or she is not there.

psych (1-7 are in own cards) (5 decks)

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