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MCAT Psychology & Sociology EKrack > Ch. 5 Biological Correlates Of Psychology > Flashcards

Ch. 5 Biological Correlates Of Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Regulatory genes

A

Genes that affect various steps from DNA to protein and thus can alter gene expression.

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2
Q

Adaptive values

A

Is the extent to which behaviors contribute to survival in the given environment.

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3
Q

Sensation

A

Is the conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals that are transferred through the nervous system by neurons.

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4
Q

Perception

A

Is the use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world.

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5
Q

Absolute threshold

A

Is the lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be sensed.

Ex. A persons absolute threshold for sound is the softest sound that he or she can hear.

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6
Q

Difference thershold

A

Aka -just noticeable difference
Describes the smallest difference that is sufficient for a change in a stimulus to be noticed.
It measures a sensory systems ability to detect small changes from a previously perceived stimulus.

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7
Q

Weber’s Law

A

States that the change required to meet the difference threshold is a certain fraction (the Weber fraction) of the originally presented stimulus.

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8
Q

Signal detection theory

A

Focuses on how an organism differentiates important or meaningful stimuli from those that are not of interest in an environment where the distinction is ambiguous.

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9
Q

Attention

A

Similar to the process by which signal detection allows the identification a stimulus as meaningful, attention selects sensory information for perceptual processing.

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10
Q

Selective attention

A

Refers to the focus of attention on one particular stimulus or task at the exclusion of other stimuli.

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11
Q

Divided attention

A

Splits perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors.

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12
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Involves the construction of perceptions from individual pieces of information provided by sensory processing.

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13
Q

Top-down processing

A

Brings the influence of prior knowledge into play to make perception more efficient.

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14
Q

Gestalt principles

A

Describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information, such as that from the visual and auditory senses, into distinct forms.

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15
Q

Virtual processing

A

Is the interpretation of otherwise raw sensory data to produce visual perception.

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16
Q

Parallel processing

A

Is the use of multiple pathways to convey information about the same stimulus. It starts at the level of the bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye.

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17
Q

Feature detection

A

Is a type of serial processing, where increasingly complex aspects of the stimulus are processed in sequence.

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18
Q

Consciousness

A

Can be roughly equated with awareness.

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19
Q

Alertness

A

Can be called the default state of consciousness

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20
Q

What is the Circadian rhythms function

A

Maintains the daily balance between wakefulness and sleep. It also regulates the body’s functions on a predictable schedule.

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21
Q

Stage 1 of sleep

A

Also called light sleep, includes alpha waves. Note* alpha waves are associated with a state of wakefulness, but one that is more relaxed than the fully alert state associated with beta waves.

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22
Q

Stage 2 of sleep

A

Is associate with burst of brain wave activity that indicate a full transition into sleep.

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23
Q

Stage 3 of sleep

A

In stage 3 sleep, delta waves, much longer than alpha waves, are first seen, reflecting the transition into deep sleep.

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24
Q

Stage 4 of sleep

A

Brainwaves in stage 4 (deepest sleep) are almost entirely delta waves.

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25
Q

Explain the sleep cycle

A

One might expect that a sleeper would go straight into stage 4 sleep and stay there throughout the night but this is not the case. The first few sleep cycles include the deepest level of sleep, however, later in the night, more time is spent in the light stages of sleep.

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26
Q

REM sleep

A

Characterized by partial paralysis, rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, and an EEG that resembles waking brain activity. Occurs during stage 1 sleep. REM sleep does not occur in the first sleep cycle of the night, but makes up a significant porting of stage 1 sleep in later cycles. REM sleep is implicated in learning and memory and may play a role in emotional processing.

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27
Q

Non-REM sleep

A

Makes up the largest portion of sleep in which brain activity is much lower.

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28
Q

What stage of sleep does dreaming occur?

A

Stage 1 REM sleep

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29
Q

Sleep terror disorder

A

Is characterized by severe nightmare like imagery. Sleep terrors occur during NREM sleep. Are much more psychologically disturbing than nightmares, involving a sense of total panic.

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30
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Is essentially the takeover of waking life by REM sleep that occurs without warning.

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31
Q

Hypnosis

A

Is a state of relaxation, focused attention and increased willingness to relinquish control over ones own actions. It is induced through cooperation with a hypnotist.

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32
Q

Meditation

A

Is an intentional self produced state of consciousness induced by relaxing and systematically shifting attention away from day to day concerns.

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33
Q

Consciousness altering drugs

A

Include recreational drugs as well as caffeine.

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34
Q

How do agonistic drugs function?

A

Agonists mimic chemically similar, naturally occurring neurotransmitters, thus enhancing their effect on neural functioning.

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35
Q

How do antagonists drugs function?

A

Antagonists are drugs that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them and block the binding of the associated neurotransmitter, undermining its normal effects.

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36
Q

How do reuptake inhibitors function?

A

They interfere with the reuptake process so that a greater amount of neurotransmitter remains in the synapse.
Note* reuptake of neurotransmitters prevents the constant stimulation of post synaptic receptors.

37
Q

Stimulants

A

Raise the level of activity in the central nervous system. Many stimulants act by increasing the amount if monoamine neurotransmitters that have been taken up by the presynaptic neuron.

38
Q

Depressants

A

Cause a decrease of activity in the central nervous system.

39
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Are a category of drugs that cannot be nearly classified as stimulants or depressants; instead their defining feature is an alteration in sensory and perceptual experience.

40
Q

Reward pathway

A

Is a particular pathway within the limbic system, that is associated with both feelings of reward in day to day life and the feelings of pleasure that lead to cravings and addiction. Long term drug use can alter the reward pathway to produce the characteristic features of drug addiction.

41
Q

Sensory memory

A

Is temporary storage for incoming sensory stimuli. Is largely an unconscious, neurological process, carried out via sensory receptors and dendritic summation.

42
Q

Working memory

A

Is information that can be used, applied, or elaborated on. Is held in short term memory.

43
Q

Long term memory

A

Is memory held outside of conscious awareness and can be called back into working memory when needed.

44
Q

Neural plasticity

A

Is the ability of the brains networks of neurons and their synapses to change.

45
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

Describes the increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger an action potential in the post synaptic neuron. Is the molecular process underlying the formation of long term memories through the strengthening of synapses.

46
Q

Retrieval

A

Occurs when information stored in long term memory returns to working memory for the purpose of problem solving and guidance of behavior.

47
Q

Semantic networks

A

Organize information in networks of meaningfully related memories.

48
Q

Spreading activation

A

Process in which one item triggers an activation of related memories.

49
Q

Recall

A

Is the retrieval of a memory from scratch.

50
Q

Recognition

A

Is the correct identification of information that is presented.

51
Q

Retrieval cues

A

Are environmental stimuli or pieces of information that are associated in some way with the memory being sought.

52
Q

Primacy effect

A

States that recall is reliably strongest for items at the beginning of the list.

53
Q

Recency effect

A

States that recall is also very strong for items at the end of a list.

54
Q

Interference

A

Process in which similar information prevents the retrieval of a memory.

55
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Process in which newly learned material prevents successful retrieval of related older memories.

56
Q

Proactive interference

A

Process when previously held knowledge prevents successful retrieval of more newly learned information.

57
Q

Memory construction

A

Process in which memories are updated with new information and experiences. Occurs during retrieval.

58
Q

Source monitoring

A

Occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source, correctly or not, such as recalling that a story was told by a particular person.

59
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

Is a neurodegenerative disease. There are two distinctive types of damage to the brain in Alzheimer’s: amyloid plaques, which are extracellular protein deposits, and neuro-fibrillary tangles, which are located within neurons.

60
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

Is similar to Alzheimer’s in how it presents as a deficit in the ability to recall recent events while older memories are relatively unaffected. Korksakoffs us caused by a nutritional deficiency in vitamin B, which is often due to severe alcoholism. Individuals with Korksakoffs appear to have damage to the frontal cortex and thalamus.

61
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

Is a neurodegenerative disease, like Alzheimer’s, but the associated brain damage is restricted to a specific area rather than being widely distributed. In Parkinson’s, deterioration within the substantia nigra located within the midbrain, leads to the impairment of motor abilities. The affected neurons release dopamine, so Parkinson’s is associated with a deficiency in dopamine in this part of the brain.

62
Q

Sleep spindle

A

A rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves [associated with stage 2 sleep] that may be important for learning and memory.

63
Q

K-complex

A

A very high amplitude pattern of brain activity [associated with stage 2 sleep] that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli…
K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environment.

64
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

SCN is the body’s master clock. It is a small group of brain cells located in the hypothalamus (just above the optic nerve) that controls the circadian cycles and influences many physiological and behavioral rhythms occurring over a 24-hour period. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. As does complete blindness.

65
Q

Melatonin

A

Is a hormone released by the brains pineal gland that regulates the sleep-wake cycle in humans; increased production and release results in sense of drowsiness.

66
Q

Freud’s theory on dreams

A

Believe that dreaming allows us to [access our unconscious and] sort through unresolved, repressed wishes. Freud’s theory describes dreams as having both latent and manifest content. Latent content relates to deep unconscious wishes or fantasies while manifest content is superficial and meaningless.

67
Q

Manifest versus latent content

A

Manifest content is the actual content, or story line of the dream. Latent content refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the woman’s fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis.

68
Q

Jung’s theory in dreams

A

Believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone.

69
Q

Lucid dreams

A

Dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such they can control the dream.

70
Q

Cartwright’s theory in dreaming

A

The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright… Believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer.

71
Q

Expectation fulfillment theory on dreaming

A

This theory posits that dreaming serves to discharge emotional arousals that haven’t been expressed during the day.

72
Q

Threat simulation theory of dreaming

A

Suggest that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defense mechanism that provided an evolutionary advantage because of its capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required got efficient threat avoidance.

73
Q

Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming

A

Theory that asserts that dreams don’t actually mean anything. Instead m, dreams are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories.

74
Q

Declarative memory

A

The type of long term memory that stores facts and events; also know as conscious or explicit memory. Ex. A lock combination

75
Q

Procedural memory

A

Unconscious memory, memory for how things get done, the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used. Ex. Riding a bike.

76
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Sleep disorders that affect the amount, quality and timing of sleep such as insomnia, sleep apnea and narcolepsy.

77
Q

Parasomnias

A

Sleep disorders that are marked by irregular behavior or physiological occurrences such as sleep walking, sleep talking, and sleep terrors.

78
Q

Somniloquy

A

Or sleep talking can occur in REM or NREM, and most people have no memory of it.

79
Q

Alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates

A

All act by increasing GABA activity and are considered to have an anxiolytic effect. Benzodiazepines and barbiturates are also used in the prevention and treatment of seizures.

80
Q

Cannabinoids and opioids/opiates

A

Are depressants, but they don’t work in GABA receptors even as they have an overall depressive effect on the CNS. Cannabinoids work on cannabinoid receptors and opioids work on opiate receptors.

81
Q

MDMA (ecstasy)

A

Differs from most stimulants in that its primary pharmacological effect is on the neurotransmitter serotonin rather than dopamine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine.

82
Q

NDRIs

A

Norepinephrine/Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors. Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is an example that is used for depression even though it has little effect on serotonin levels, which illustrates the impact on norepinephrine and dopamine in mood, energy, and activity.

83
Q

Cocaine

A

Intoxication causes hyperactivity and euphoria. However, high levels of dopamine can also cause psychosis. Because of it’s potent effects on dopamine levels cocaine is considered amongst the very most addictive drugs known to man.

84
Q

Heroin

A

Opioid considered amongst the most addictive substances known to man.

85
Q

Methadone, Suboxone

A

Opioids with lower addiction potential used to reduce cravings for and withdrawal from heroin.

86
Q

Dextromethorphan and codeine

A

(The DM in cough medicines) used as cough suppressants.

87
Q

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

A

Most potent of hallucinogens found in small doses in morning glory seeds.

88
Q

PCP aka Angel Dust

A

Intoxication often causes decreased sensation of pain, delusional beliefs about ones strengths, increased aggression, and even psychosis.

89
Q

Ketamine aka special K

A

Is being researched as a psychiatric treatment for depression. It’s effects and actions are similar to those of PCP though milder.

MCAT Psychology & Sociology EKrack (2 decks)

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