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Biology 225 > Ch 32 An Overview of Animal Diversity > Flashcards

Ch 32 An Overview of Animal Diversity Flashcards

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1
Q

What are key characteristics of animals?

A
  • Eukaryotic, heterotrophic (obtaining nutrients from outside) and multicellular
  • History spans more than half a billion years
  • Can be characterized by “body plans”
  • New views of animal phylogeny (evolution of a genetically related group of organisms via the study of protein or gene evolution by involving the comparison of homologous sequences) continue to be shaped by new molecular data
  • Scientists have identified 1.3 million living species of animals, out of an estimated total of approximately 10 million.
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2
Q

Heterotroph

A
  • cannot construct organic molecules on their own
  • Obtain organic molecules from food ingested within their body
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3
Q

Describe what happens to fertilized egg

A
  1. zygote + cleavage
  2. Eight-cell stage + cleavage
  3. Blastula
  4. Gastrulation

= endoderm, ectoderm blastopore

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4
Q

Larva

def

A

sexually immature

morphologically distinct from adult

eventually undergoes metamorphosis to become a juvenile

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5
Q

Juvenile

def

A

resembles adult

not sexually mature

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6
Q

Hox gene

A

only animals

most animals have them

lay out the basic body form

set-up head to tail organization

highly conserved, but can produce a huge diversity or animal morphology

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7
Q

Common ancestor or all living animals

characteristics

A

lived 700-770 million years ago

resembled modern choanoflagellates (protist, closest living relative of animals)

Life on earth: 3.5 billion years

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8
Q

Radial vs bilateral symmetry

A
  • Radial: no front or back, no left or right sides (sea star)
  • Bilateral symmetry: dorsal and ventral side, right and left sides, anterior (front) and posterior end. Many have sensory equipment at anterior end. Development of head = cephalization
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9
Q

Tissues

def

A

Collection of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by membranous layer

During development, 3 germ layers turn into tissues and organs

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10
Q

Ectoderm

vs

Endoderm

A
  • Ectoderm: surface
  • Endoderm: innermost layer, lines digestive tube (archenteron)
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11
Q

Diploblastic individuals

A
  • ectoderm and endoderm (cnidarians etc)
  • Triploblastic: also have mesoderm (all bilaterians). Mesoderm creates body cavity (coelom)
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12
Q

Coelom

A

Body cavity

Made from the mesoderm

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13
Q

Protostome

vs

Deuterostome

A
  • Protostome: cleavage spiral and determinate (molluscs, annelids)
  • Deuterostome: cleavage radial and indeterminate (each cell retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo) (echinoderms, chordates)
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14
Q

5 important points about relationships among living animals reflected in phyla

A
  • All animals have common ancestor
  • Sponges are basal animals (radial symmetry, simple, diploblast)
  • Eumetazoa (true animals): animals with true tissues
  • Most phyla are bilaterians
  • 3 major clades of bilaterian animals
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15
Q

3 clades of bilatarians

A
  • Deuterostomia (hemichordates, echinoderms, chordates) (radial cleavage, anus forms from blastopore). DNA similarities
  • Ecdysozoa (invertebrates that shed exoskeletons = ecdysis) (nematodes and arthropods)
  • Lophotrochozoa (weird feeding structure called lophophore, or they have a developmental stage called trochophore larva) (flatworms, molluscs, annelids, rotifers (small multicellular marine animals))
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16
Q

Important Eras

A
  • Origin of Earth: 4.5 Billion years
  • 3.5 billion: prokariotic cells
  • 2 billion: eukaryotic cells
  • 26 million years: genus HOMO: quatenary part of the cenozoic
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17
Q

Which clade has the widest range of animal body forms?

A

Lophotrochozoans

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18
Q

What is an ancient phylum of eumetazoans?

A

Cnidarians

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19
Q

What is the most species-rich animal group?

A

Ecdysozoans

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20
Q

Name two phyla of deuterostomes

A

Echinoderms and chordates

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21
Q

Locate the common ancestor of all animals

A

it’s at the branch between porifera and eumetazoa

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22
Q

How do sponges eat

A

In their oscolum (cavity), they have choanocyte cells with a collar and a flagella that has mucus that traps food particles

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23
Q

Eumetazoa

description

A
  • All animals except sponges and a few other groups belong to clade Eumetazoa
  • Animals with true tissues
  • Cnidaria is one of the oldest groups in this clade
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24
Q

Cnidaria

characteristics

A
  • Part of eumetazoa clade
  • sessile or motile
  • simple, diploblastic radial body plan
  • basic body plan is a sac with a gastrovascular cavity
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25
Q

Bilateria

characteristics

A
  • Clade contains: deuterostomia, ecdysozoa, lophotrochozoa
  • triploblastic development
  • most have coelom and digestive tract with 2 openings
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26
Q

Protostome vs deuterostome

CLEAVAGE

A

At 8 cell stage:

Protostome: spiral and determinate

Deuterostome: radial and inteterminate

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27
Q

Protostome vs deuterostome

COELOM FORMATION

A

Protostome: solid masses of mesoderm split and form coelom

Deuterostome: Folds of archenteron form the coelom

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28
Q

Protostome vs deuterostome

FATE OF THE BLASTOPORE

A

Protostome: mouth develops from the blastopore

Deuterostome: anus develops from the blastopore

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29
Q

Chordates

characteristics

A
  • deuterostomia clade
  • all have a set of derived characteristics, though some only have them during embryonic development (notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail)
  • 2 subphyla: invertebrates and vertebrates
  • bilateral symmetry
  • coelom
  • segmented body
  • did NOT evolve from echinoderms
  • notochord and dorsal hollow nerve cord
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30
Q

vertebrates

def

A

chordates that have a backbone

52,000 species

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31
Q

gnathostome

def

A
  • vertebrates that have jaws
  • genome duplication (incl hox genes)
  • enlarged forebrain (enhanced vision and smell)
  • in aquatic gnathostomes: lateral line system is sensitive to vibrations
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32
Q

tetrapods

def

A

gnathostomes that have limbs

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33
Q

aminotes

def

A

tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg

34
Q

notochord

def

A

longitudinal, flexible rod

between digestive tube and nerve cord

provides skeletal support

in most vertebrates, a jointed skeleton forms and the adult retains only remnants of the embryonic notochord

35
Q

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

characteristics

A

Develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube dorsal to the notochord

develops the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord

36
Q

Why are tunicates chordates

A

They resemble them as larva

adult tunicates draw water in to filter food particles

37
Q

Vertebrates

characteristics

A
  • have 2 or more sets of hox genes
  • lancets and tunicates only have one set
  • derived characteristics: vertebrae enclosing a spinal cord and an elaborate skull
38
Q

Chondrichthyans

def

A
  • type of vertebrate
  • skeleton composed of cartilage
  • sharks, rays
39
Q

Osteichthyes

A
  • vast majority of vertebrates gnathostomes
  • bony endoskeleton
  • include bony fish and tetrapods
40
Q

Tetrapods

def

A
  • gnathostomes with limbs
  • limbs evolved from fins
  • 4 limbs
  • feet with digits
  • neck which allows separate movement of head
  • pelvic girdle fused with backbone
  • no gills (except some aquatic species)
  • ears
41
Q

Amniotes

def

A
  • tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg
  • amniotic egg was a key adaptation to life on land
  • terrestrial adaptations include impermeable skin and rib cage to ventilate lungs
42
Q

Reptiles

characteristics

A
  • ectothermic: absorb external heat
  • regulate body temperature through behaviour adaptations
  • birds, however, are endothermic
  • birds are dinosaurs (reptiles), but reptilian anatomy has undergone modification for flight
43
Q

Bird

Flight Adaptations

A
  • wings with keratin feathers
  • lack of urinary bladder
  • females have only one ovary
  • small gonads in both sexes
  • no teeth
44
Q

Mammals

Derived characteristics

A
  • Mammary glands
  • Hair
  • High metabolic rate due to endothermy
  • Larger brain than other vertebrates of same size
  • Differentiated teeth
  1. Monotremes: egg laying mammals
45
Q

Primates

Characteristics

A
  • Large brain
  • Short jaws
  • Forward-looking eyes, close together on face (depth perception)
  • Complexe social behaviour and parental care
  • Opposable thumb
  • Homo sapiens: 200,000 years old
  • human and chimpanzee: 99% identical genome
46
Q

Anatomy

vs

Physiology

A

anatomy: form
physiology: function

47
Q

Evolutionary convergence

A

Reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge

Like how a penguin and a fish have a totally different shape, but both are adapted to swimming well despite the viscosity of water

48
Q

Exchange with the environment

A
  • Wastes, gases, nutrients must be exchanged with the environment
  • Rate of exchange is proportional to the cell’s surface area
  • Amount of exchange is proportional to a cell’s volume
  • In flat animals, like tapeworms, most cells are in direct contact with the outside. For those who are not flat, adaptations like branched or folded structures allow exchange with environment
  • In vertebrates, space between cells is filled with interstitial fluid which allows for the movement in and out of cells
49
Q

Regulator

vs

Conformer

A

Regulators: Use internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of environmental fluctuations (homeostasis)

Conformers: allow their internal conditions to vary with certain environmental changes

some animals can do both

50
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • keeps steady state regardless of environment
  • body temperature, blood ph, glucose concentration are maintained at a constant level
  • fluctuations below or above a certain point act as a stimulus detected by a sensor that triggers a response
  • when you reached the right point, it stops = negative feedback
  • homeostasis relies heavily on negative feedback (positive feedback doesn’t contribute to homeostasis)
51
Q

Endothermic

vs

Ectothermic

A

Endothermic: create their heat by metabolism. More energetically expensive than ectothermy

Ectothermic: absorb heat from their environment. Ectotherms can tolerate a greater variation in internal temperature. They have a much lower metabolic rate

52
Q

Heat regulation

A

In mammals, involves integumentary system (hair, nails, skin

Adaptations that help with thermoregulation:

  1. insulation (skin, blubber, feathers reduce heat flow)
  2. circulatory adaptation: vasodilation: blood flow to skin increases. vasoconstriction: blood flow decreases to skin. countercurrent exchange allows heat flow between fluids flowing in opposite directions to reduce heat loss
  3. cooling by evaporative heat loss
  4. behavioural response
  5. adjusting metabolic heat production (thermogenesis). Increased by moving or by hormones increasing mitochondria activity
53
Q

Bioenergetics

A
  • Overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
  • Determines how much food and O2 and animal needs
  • Related to animal’s size, environment and activity levels
54
Q

Autotroph

vs

Heterotroph

A

Autotroph: harness energy from light to build energy-rich molecules

Heterotroph: harvest chemical energy from food

55
Q

Energy allocation and use

process

A
  • Energy-rich molecules from food are used to make ATP to power the cell
  • This is used to stay alive, grow, repair, synthesis of fat, gamete production
56
Q

Metabolic Rate

A
  • How much energy used per unit of time
  • Calculated from heat loss, oxygen consumed, CO2 produced
  • Calories consumed and lost in waste products
  • Proportional to mass by a power of 3/4: m3/4
  • Smaller animals have higher metabolic rate per gram than larger animals
  • Basal BMR: for endotherms
  • Standard SMR: for ectotherms
  • both those rates assume at rest, not growing, not stressed, fasting
  • Average daily rate is around 2-4 times BMR or SMR
57
Q

Torpor

vs

Hibernation

A
  • Torpor: State in which activity is low and metabolism decreases. Enables animal to save energy.
  • Hibernation: long term torpor. Adaptation for cold or food scarcity.
58
Q

Main stages of Food Processing

A
  1. Ingestion: eating
  2. Digestion: breaking down food into absorbable molecules. Mechanical (increases surface area of food) and chemical (splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes
  3. Absorption: uptake of nutrients by body cells
  4. Elimination: undigested food exits digestive system
59
Q

Essential Nutrients

process

A
  • Carbon and nitrogen are used to synthesize
  • Essential nutrients are obtained from the diet
  • 4 classes:
  1. amino acids (20 needed, 10 synthesized 10 eaten directly) meat, eggs, cheese. complete proteins
  2. fatty acids (must be obtained from diet) unsaturated = double bonds
  3. vitamins: required in small amounts. 13 needed.
  4. minerals: small amounts, inorganic. large amounts upset homeostatic balance
60
Q

Suspension Feeders

A
  • Aquatic animals that sift small food particles from water
61
Q

Substrate Feeders

A

Animals that live on or inside their food source

ex: caterpillar that burrows into a leaf

62
Q

Fluid Feeders

A

Suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host

63
Q

Bulk Feeders

A

Eat relatively large pieces of food

ex: snake that eats a whole animal

64
Q

Why do animals have digestive compartments?

A

To reduce the risk of digesting your own cells and tissues

65
Q

Intracellular Digestion

A
  • Particles are engulfed by phagocytosis
  • Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes
  • Sponges digest entirely this way
66
Q

Extracellular Digestion

A
  • Break down of food particles OUTSIDE the cell
  • Animals with simple body plans have a gastrovascular cavity that digests and distributes nutrients
  • Complexe animals have a digestive tube with 2 openings (complete digestive tract or alimentary canal)
67
Q

Mammalian Digestive System

parts and movement

A
  • Alimentary canal + glands (salivary, pancreas, liver, gallbladder)
  • Food pushed by peristalsis
  • Valves called sphincters regulate movement of material between compartments
68
Q

Digestion in the Oral Cavity

A
  1. Mechanical: oral cavity. teeth chew to break down
  2. Salivary glands lubricate food (mucus). Salivary amylase starts to break down glucose
  3. Food goes into Pharynx then oesophagus
69
Q

Digestion in stomach

A
  • Stomach stores food and begins digestion of proteins
  • Stomach secretes gastric (HCl and pepsin) juices which converts food to chyme
  • Low PH (2) which kills bacteria and denatures proteins
  • Pepsin is a protease (protein digesting enzyme) that cuts proteins into smaller peptides
  • Mucus protects stomach lining from gastric juice
70
Q

Digestion and absorption in Small Intestine

A
  • Most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules happens here
  • First portion of small intestine is called DUODENDUM where chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder and the small intestine itself
  • Absorption facilitated due to large surface area (due to villi and microvilli)
  • Transport across epithelial cells can be passive or active, depending on the nutrient
  • Hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from villi capillaries to liver
  • Liver regulates nutrient distribution, detoxes some organic molecules
  • Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and monoglicerides and recombine them into triglicerides
71
Q

Pancreatic Secretions

A
  • Protease called trypsin and chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of the duodendum
  • Solution is alkaline and neutralizes acidic chyme
72
Q

Liver Secretion

A
  • Bile aids to digest and absorb fats
  • Bile is made in the liver and stored in gallbladder
  • Bile destroys nonfunctional red blood cells
73
Q

Absorption in large intestine

A
  • Colon is connected to small intestine
  • Cecum (extension = appendix - for immunity) aids in fermentation of plant material
  • Colon recovers water
  • Houses bacteria that live off unabsorvbed material
74
Q

Carnivore

vs

Herbivore

vs

Omnivore

A
  • Carnivores have large expandable stomach
  • Herbivores and omnivores have longer alimentary canals (longer time to digest vegetation)
75
Q

Mutualistic adaptations for nutrition

A
  • mutualistic symbiosis: microbiome (innate immune system)
  • Herbivores have fermentation chambers where mutualistic microorganisms digest cellulose (ruminants)
76
Q

Feedback circuits and digestion

A
  • Nervous system helps regulate digestive process
  • Endocrine System regulates digestion through hormones
  • Ghrelin (hormone secreted by stomach) triggers feeling hungry
  • Insulin and PYY (secreted by small intestine) suppress apetite
  • Leptin (produced by adipose tissue) suppresses apetite and regulates body fat levels
77
Q

Energy Storage

A
  • In humans, energy stored in liver and muslces in the polymer glycogen
  • Excess energy stored in adipose tissue
  • When fewer calories eaten, body expands liver glycogen, then muscle, then fat
78
Q

Neurons

A
  • Nerve cells that transfer information within the body
  • Transfer electric signals (long-distance) and chemical signals (short-distance)
  • Organelles are in cell body
  • Dendrites: highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons
  • Axon: longer extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses
  • Synaptic terminal of one axon passes info across the synapse as chemical messengers (neurotransmitters)
  • Synapse: junction between axon and another cell
  • Info goes from presynaptic cell (neuron) towards postsynaptic cell (neuron, muscle, gland cell)
  • Neurons are nourished and insulated by cells called glia
79
Q

Processing of information

location

A
  • Ganglia: simple cluster of neurons
  • Brain: complexe organization of neurons
  • 3 steps:
  1. sensory input: sensors detect external stimuli and internal conditions and transmit info via sensory neurons
  2. integration: info sent to brain or ganglia where interneurons integrate the info
  3. motor output: leaves brain or ganglia via motor neurons which trigger muscle or gland
  • giant ring axon in jellyfish coordinate movement of bell and tentacles
80
Q

Central Nervous System

CNS

A
  • Integration takes place
  • Brain and nerve cord
81
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

PNS

A
  • Carries info into and out of CNS
  • Bundled neurons of PNS form nerves

Biology 225 (2 decks)

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