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PSYC1020 - Midterm 2 > Ch. 3: Neuroscience and Behaviour > Flashcards

Ch. 3: Neuroscience and Behaviour Flashcards

1
Q

What are neurons?

A

Cells in the nervous system that communicate with each other to perform information-processing tasks

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2
Q

What are the 3 basic parts of a neuron?

A
  1. Cell body
  2. Dendrites
  3. Axon
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3
Q

What is the cell body also called?

A

The soma

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4
Q

What is the cell body, and what does it do?

A
  • the largest component of the neuron, which contains the nucleus (DNA/chromosomes) and is enclosed by a porous cell membrane
  • the part of the neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
  • where functions such as protein synthesis, energy production, and metabolism take place
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5
Q

What do the dendrites do?

A

Receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body

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6
Q

What does the axon do?

A

Carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

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7
Q

What is the myelin sheath, and what is it made of?

A
  • An insulating layer of fatty material that covers the axon in many neurons
  • Insulates the axon and allows it to carry information more efficiently
  • Composed of glial cells
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8
Q

What are glial cells, and what might they do?

A
  • Support cells found in the nervous system

- Some digest parts of dead neurons, others provide physical/nutritional support for neurons, and other form myelin

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9
Q

What happens in demyelinating diseases, like MS?

A

The myelin sheath deteriorates, slowing down communication between neurons; leads to loss of feeling in limbs, partial blindness, difficulties with coordination/cognition, etc.

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10
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another

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11
Q

What are the 3 major types of neurons?

A
  1. Sensory neurons
  2. Motor neurons
  3. Interneurons
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12
Q

What do sensory neurons do?

A

Receive information from the external world and convey it to the brain via the spinal cord; have specialized endings on their dendrites that receive signals for light, sound, touch, taste, or smell

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13
Q

What do motor neurons do?

A

Carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement; often have very long axons to reach muscles at the extremities

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14
Q

What do interneurons do?

A
  • Connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other interneurons
  • Work together in small circuits to perform simple tasks (ex. identifying the location of a sensory signal)
  • Work together in circuits to perform more complicated tasks (ex. recognizing a familiar face)
  • Make up most of the nervous system
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15
Q

What were the 3 specialized neuron types we studied?

A
  1. Purkinjie cells
  2. Pyramidal cells
  3. Bipolar cells
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16
Q

What are purkinjie cells?

A

A type of specialized interneuron that carries information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain and the spinal cord; have dense, elaborate dendrites that resemble bushes

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17
Q

What are pyramidal cells?

A

Specialized cells in the cerebral cortex; have a triangular cell body and a single, long dendrite among may smaller dendrites

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18
Q

What are bipolar cells?

A

A type of specialized sensory neuron found in the retinas of the eyes; have a single axon and a single dendrite

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19
Q

What are the 2 stages of communication between neurons?

A
  1. Conduction

2. Transmission

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20
Q

What is conduction when it comes to neurons?

A

The movement of an electric signal within neurons, from the dendrites to the cell body, then throughout the axon

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21
Q

What is transmission when it comes to neurons?

A

The movement of a signal from one neuron to another as a result of chemical signalling across the synapse

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22
Q

Together, what are conduction and transmission in a neuron called?

A

Electrochemical action of neurons

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23
Q

What is a resting potential? What is its charge?

A
  • The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane; a natural electric charge
  • about -70 millivolts
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24
Q

What causes the charge of a neuron’s resting potential?

A
  • The difference in concentrations of ions inside and outside the neuron’s cell:
  • In a resting state, there is a high concentration of K+ ions and protein (A-) ions inside the cell membrane and a high concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions outside; since A- ions are larger and carry a stronger charge, the inside of the cell is relatively negatively charged
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25
Q

What happens during a resting potential in a neuron that makes an action potential possible?

A

-An active channel “pump” maintains a high concentration of K+ ions inside the cell membrane and a high concentration of Na+ ions outside; the difference in concentration is what prompts ions to move across the membrane once their specific channel is open

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26
Q

What is an action potential, and when does it occur?

A
  • An electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a synapse
  • Occurs only when electric stimulation is at or above the threshold
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27
Q

When it comes to an action potential, what is meant by “all or none”?

A
  • Electric stimulation below the threshold fails to produce any action potential
  • There is no difference in the strength of the action potential based on the strength of the simulation; action potentials are always the same magnitude
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28
Q

What is the charge of an action potential?

A

+40 millivolts

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29
Q

What is the cause of positive surge in charge of an action potential?

A

Na+ channels in the cell membrane are opened, so the Na+ ions outside the cell rush into the cell since it is an area of low concentration

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30
Q

What 2 events restore the negative charge of the resting potential?

A
  1. Na+ channels inactivate themselves for several milliseconds, stopping the flow of Na+ ions into the cell
  2. K+ channels open, allowing excess K+ ions inside the cell to escape; the K+ channels close once the inside of the cell has a negative charge

The cycle then repeats, starting with the ion pumps pushing Na+ out and pulling K+ in and creating a resting potential

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31
Q

What is a refractory period, and what is its benifit?

A
  • The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
  • Limits the number of times per second a neuron can fire and keeps the action potential from travelling back towards the cell body
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32
Q

How often can an action potential happen?

A

More than 100 times per second in some neurons

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33
Q

How does an action potential move along the length of the neuron?

A
  • The Na+ ions being let into the neuron spread down the inside of it and increase the electrical charge as they go
  • As the charge increases, it triggers subsequent voltage-gated channels to open and even more Na+ flows in until a charge of +40 millivolts is reached
  • Ensures the action potential travels the full length of the neuron and that the intensity remains consistent
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34
Q

What is saltatory conduction and what is its benefit?

A

-Myelin prevents electric current from leaking out of the axon, so the current appears to
“jump” quickly from one node of Ranvier to the next
-Speeds up the flow of information down the axon

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35
Q

What are terminal buttons?

A

Knoblike structures at the end of an axon; each is filled with tiny vesicles (sacs) that contain neurotransmitters

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36
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites

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37
Q

On a neuron, what are receptors?

A

Parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and either initiate or prevent a new electric signal

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38
Q

What is a presynaptic neuron?

A

The neuron that sends the action potential

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39
Q

What is a postsynaptic neuron?

A

The neuron that receives that action potential

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40
Q

What is synaptic transmission, and what is its function?

A
  • The sending and receiving of chemical neurotransmitters

- Underlies thoughts, emotions, and behaviour

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41
Q

Describe the process of an action potential

A

See written notes

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42
Q

Describe the process of synaptic transmission

A

See written notes

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43
Q

In what 3 ways can neurotransmitters leave the synapse?

A
  1. Reuptake
  2. Enzyme deactivation
  3. Diffusion
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44
Q

What is reuptake when it comes to neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters are absorbed by the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron’s axon or by neighbouring glial cells

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45
Q

What is enzyme deactivation when it comes to neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes in the synapse; specific enzymes break down specific neurotransmitters

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46
Q

What is diffusion when it comes to neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters drift out of the synapse and can no longer reach receptors

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47
Q

What is an autoreceptor?

A

Receptor sites on the presynaptic neuron that can detect how much of a neurotransmitter has been released into a synapse and may stop the release of more

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48
Q

What is Acetylcholine (ACh)?

A
  • A neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions including voluntary motor control
  • Activates muscle movements and contributes to:
    • regulation of attention
    • learning
    • sleeping
    • dreaming
    • memory
  • Found in neurons in the brain and synapses where axons connect to muscles/body organs
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49
Q

What condition is associated with Acetylcholine (ACh)?

A

Alzheimer’s disease: associated with the deterioration of ACh-producing neurons

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50
Q

What is dopamine?

A
  • A neurotransmitter that regulates:
    • motor behaviour
    • motivation
    • pleasure
    • emotional arousal
  • Plays a role in basic motivated behaviours such as seeking pleasure or associating actions with rewards (especially in drug addiction)
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51
Q

What conditions are associated with dopamine?

A
  • High levels of dopamine in some brain pathways are linked to schizophrenia
  • Low levels in other areas are linked to Parkinson’s disease
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52
Q

What is Glutamate?

A

The major EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in the brain; enhances transmission of information between neurons

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53
Q

What condition is linked to Glutamate?

A

Too much glutamate can cause neurons to become overactive and lead to seizures

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54
Q

What is GABA (gamma-amniobutyric acid)?

A

The primary INHIBITORY neurotransmitter in the brain; tends to prevent the firing of neurons

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55
Q

What condition is associated with GABA?

A

Too little GABA can cause neurons to become overactive and lead to seizures

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56
Q

What is an agonist?

A

A drug that increases the action of a neurotransmitter

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57
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

A drug that diminishes the function of a neurotransmitter

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58
Q

What is L-Dopa? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • A drug used to treat Parkinson’s disease (loss of neurons that make dopamine)
  • Increases the concentration of L-dopa and spurs the surviving neurons to produce more dopamine
  • Agonist for dopamine
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59
Q

What is amphetamine? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • Stimulates the release of norepinephrine and dopamine while also blocking their reuptake
  • Excess of neurotransmitters results in euphoria, wakefulness, a burst of energy, and increased heart rate
  • Agonist
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60
Q

What is cocaine? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • Prevents reuptake of neurotransmitters
  • Acts on different areas of the brain than amphetamine
  • Agonist
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61
Q

What are opioids? Are they agonists or an antagonists?

A
  • Drugs, mostly used as pain killers or recreationally, that can be naturally (morphine, heroin) or synthetically (oxy, hydrocodone, fentanyl) derived
  • Agonists for endorphins
  • Antagonists for neurotransmitters involved in the perception of pain
  • Diminishes brain stem’s sensitivity to CO2, resulting in depressed breathing or asphyxiation in an overdose
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62
Q

What is naloxone? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • Technically an opioid
  • Binds to opioid receptors and blocks agonists like heroin
  • Antagonist
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63
Q

What is Prozac? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • SSRI; blocks reuptake of serotonin
  • Leads to serotonin remaining in the synapse longer, greater activation of serotonin receptors, and elevated mood
  • Agonist
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64
Q

What is Propanalol? Is it an agonist or an antagonist?

A
  • Beta blocker
  • Obstructs receptor sites in the heart for norepinephrine and results in lower heart rate
  • Antagonist
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65
Q

What are nerves?

A

Bundles of axons and the glial cells that support them; neurons are the building blocks of nerves

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66
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body

67
Q

What are the 2 main branches of the nervous system?

A
  1. Central nervous system (CNS)

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

68
Q

What is the central nervous system (CNS)?

A
  • Composed of the brain and spinal cord
  • Receives information from the external world, processes and coordinates this information, and sends commands to the skeletal and muscular systems for actions
69
Q

What is the brain?

A

Contains structures that support the most complex perceptual, motor, emotional, and cognitive functions of the nervous system

70
Q

Describe the spinal cord

A

Branches down from the brain and connects to nerves which process sensory information and relay commands to the body

71
Q

What are the 2 branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A
  1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system

72
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

a set of nerves that conveys information between voluntary muscles and the central nervous system; humans have conscious control over this system and use it to perceive, think, and coordinate behaviours; one branch of the peripheral nervous system

73
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

A set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands; one of the branches of the peripheral nervous system

74
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

Connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles

75
Q

What are the 2 branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A
  1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system

76
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

A set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations; one branch of the autonomic nervous system

  • dilates pupils
  • increases heart and respiration rates
  • activates sweat glands
  • etc.
77
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Helps the body return to a normal resting state by reversing the effects of the sympathetic nervous system

78
Q

Describe a process which requires the coordination of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

A

Sexual behaviour:

  • Parasympathetic engorges blood vessels of the penis and produces vaginal lubrication; anxiety inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system and leads to sexual dysfunction
  • Sympathetic is responsible for orgasm and ejaculation; over-activation of this system by anxiety can lead to premature ejaculation and vaginal dryness
79
Q

List all the divisions/branches of the nervous system

A

See written notes

80
Q

What are spinal reflexes?

A

Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions; mediated by connections between the sensory inputs and motor neurons in the spinal cord

Example: pain withdrawal reflex

81
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

A neural pathway that control reflex actions; can include sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons, while some simple reflex arcs are only comprised of sensory and motor neurons

82
Q

What does a “bottom to top” division of the brain posit, and what are the divisions?

A

Simpler functions are generally performed in the lower levels of the brain while more complex functions are performed at successively higher levels

  1. Hindbrain (lowest)
  2. Midbrain
  3. Forebrain (highest)
83
Q

What is the hindbrain?

A

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord; controls most basic functions of life (respiration, alertness, motor skills, etc.)

84
Q

What structures make up the hindbrain?

A
  • Medulla
  • Reticular formation
  • Cerebellum
  • Pons
85
Q

What is the medulla?

A

An extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

86
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

Part of the hindbrain; a small cluster of neurons that begins inside the medulla and extends upwards; regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal; this is where general anaesthetics target

87
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

Part of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills; orchestrates proper sequences of movement, fine-tunes behaviour/smooths out actions

88
Q

What is the pons?

A

Part of the hindbrain; a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

89
Q

What are the 2 main structures of the midbrain?

A
  • Tectum

- Tegmentum

90
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

A central location of neurotransmitters involved in arousal, mood, and motivation as well as the brain structures that rely on them

91
Q

What is the tectum?

A

Part of the midbrain; orients an organism in the environment; receives stimulus input from the eyes, ears, and skin and moves the organism in a coordinated way towards the stimulus

92
Q

What is the tegmentum?

A

Part of the midbrain; involved in movement and arousal and also helps to orient an organism towards sensory stimuli

93
Q

What does the forebrain do?

A

Controls complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions

94
Q

What are the 2 main sections of the forebrain?

A
  1. Cerebral cortex

2. Subcortical structures

95
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

The outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye; divided into 2 hemispheres

96
Q

List the subcortical structures

A
  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
  • Hippocampus
  • Amygdala
  • Basal ganglia
97
Q

List the parts of the limbic system

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Hippocampus
  • Amygdala
98
Q

What is the thalamus?

A
  • Relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
  • Takes in multiple inputs and relays them to a variety of locations
  • Filters information and gives more weight to some inputs than others; closes pathways of incoming sensations during sleep
99
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A
  • Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviour
  • Keeps body temperature, blood sugar levels, and metabolism within an optimal range
  • Plays a key role in regulating food intake
100
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory

101
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

-Critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

102
Q

What is the amygdala?

A
  • Plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
  • Attaches significance to previously neutral events that are associated with fear, punishment, or reward
  • Stimulates the hippocampus during emotionally arousing situations to remember many details surrounding the situation
103
Q

What are the basal ganglia?

A

A set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements; receive input from the cerebral cortex and send outputs to the motor centres in the brain stem

104
Q

What is the striatum?

A

Part of the basil ganglia that has an important role in the control of posture and movement (a lack of dopamine here is what causes the tremors, jerks, and inability to initiate movement of Parkinson’s)

105
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream, influencing a wide variety of basic functions

106
Q

What are the main glands of the endocrine system?

A
  • Thyroid gland
  • Adrenal glands
  • Pancreas
  • Pineal gland
  • Pituitary gland
107
Q

What does the thyroid do?

A

Regulates bodily functions like body temperature and heart rate

108
Q

What do the adrenal glands do?

A

Regulate stress responses

109
Q

What does the pancreas do?

A

Controls digestion

110
Q

What does the pineal gland do?

A

Secrets melatonin, influencing the sleep/wake cycle

111
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A
  • The “master gland”

- releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

112
Q

Describe how hormonal signals are sent from the brain to the rest of the body

A
  1. The hypothalamus (in the brain) sends hormonal signals to the pituitary gland
  2. The pituitary gland sends hormonal signals to the other glands to control stress, digestive activities, and reproductive processes
113
Q

What does the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) do?

A

-Stimulates the adrenal glands to release hormones that activate the sympathetic nervous system

114
Q

Why are gyri?

A

The raised/smooth surfaces of the wrinkles on the cortex

115
Q

What are sulci?

A

The indentations/fissures of the cortex

116
Q

How can the cortex divided?

A
  • Into 2 hemispheres
  • Into lobes (4 in each hemisphere)
  • Within specific lobes
117
Q

What does contralateral control mean?

A

Each hemisphere of the brain controls the functions of the opposite side of the body

118
Q

What are commissures?

A

Bundles of axons that join the two hemispheres and make communication between parallel areas of the cortex in each half possible

119
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

The largest commissure; connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

120
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

A
  • Occipital lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Frontal lobe
121
Q

What is the occipital lobe?

A
  • Processes visual information
  • Sensory receptors in the eyes send info to the thalamus, and the info is then sent to the occipital love where features of the stimulus are extracted and processed into a more complex “map” of the stimulus into the occipital cortex
122
Q

What is the parietal lobe?

A

Carries out functions that include processing information about touch; contains the somatosensory cortex

123
Q

What is the somatosensory cortex?

A

A strip of brain tissue running from the top of the brain down to the sides; represents the skin areas on the contralateral surface of the body; if a body area is more sensitive, a larger part of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to it

124
Q

What is a homunculus, and who developed it?

A

A distorted figure in which body parts are rendered according to how much of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to them; developed by Wilder Penfield

125
Q

What is the motor cortex?

A

Directly in front of the somatosensory cortex, but in the frontal lobe; different parts of the motor cortex correspond to different body parts; initiates voluntary movements and sends message to the basal ganglia, cerebellum,and spinal cord

126
Q

What is the temporal lobe?

A

Responsible for hearing and language; houses the areas that interpret the meaning of visual stimuli and help us recognize common objects in the environment

127
Q

What is the primary auditory cortex?

A

An area in the temporal lobe that receives sensory information from the ears, then secondary areas of the temporal love process that information into meaningful units like speech/words; analogous to the somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) and primary visual areas (occipital lobe)

128
Q

What is the frontal lobe?

A
  • Holds specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement
  • Contains the motor cortex and areas that coordinate thought processes which help us manipulate info/retrieve memories
  • Allows us to do the thinking, imagining, planning, and anticipating that makes us human
129
Q

What are association areas?

A

Composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex; stitch together information in the various parts of the cortex to produce a meaningful understanding of what’s being registered in the brain

130
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Found in the frontal lobe near the motor cortex; activated when performing a behaviour and when watching someone else perform that behaviour; more strongly activated when the behaviour has a purpose or context

131
Q

What is plasticity?

A

The ability to be moulded or adapt to changes in sensory inputs

132
Q

What is phantom limb syndrome?

A

Amputees continuing to experience sensations where their missing limb would be

133
Q

What is a gene?

A

The major unit of hereditary transmission; sections on a strand of DNA that code for protein molecules that affect traits

134
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Strands of DNA wound around each other in a double helix configuration; humans have 23 pairs, with one inherited from the mother and the other from the father

135
Q

What is messenger RNA?

A

Communicates a copy of the DNA code to cells that produce proteins

136
Q

What is the degree of relatedness?

A

The probability of people sharing genes; humans share about 99% of DNA in general, and even more with people they are closely related to

137
Q

What are monozygotic twins?

A

Identical twins; develop from the splitting of a single fertilized egg and therefore share 100% of their genes

138
Q

What are dizygotic twins?

A

Fraternal twins; develop from 2 separate fertilized eggs and share 50% of their genes (the same as any 2 siblings)

139
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

The study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed, or the degree to which they are expressed, without altering basic DNA sequences that constitute the genes themselves

140
Q

What are epigenetic marks?

A

Chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on or off; how the environment can influence gene expression

141
Q

What are the 2 widely studied epigenetic marks?

A
  • DNA methylation

- Histone modification

142
Q

What is DNA methylation?

A

Involves adding a methyl group to DNA; switches off the methylated gene, but does not alter DNA

143
Q

What are epigenetic writers?

A

Special enzymes whose role it is to add methyl groups to DNA

144
Q

What is histone modification?

A

Involves adding chemical modifications to proteins called histones that are involved in packaging DNA; DNA is wrapped around groups of histone proteins, and modifications of histones can either switch off or turn on genes

145
Q

What is heritability, and how is it represented numerically?

A

A measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors; calculated as a proportion and its numerical value (index) ranges from 0 to 1.00 (0 = no contribution to individual differences in the trait, 1.00 = only reason for the individual difference)

146
Q

What are the 3 main methods used to study how the brain affects behaviour?

A
  1. Studying people with brain damage
  2. Studying the brain’s electrical activity
  3. Using brain imaging to study the brain structure and watch the brain in action
147
Q

What did Paul Broca contribute to our understanding of the brain?

A

Described a patient who had lost the capacity to produce spoken language, but could still understand it, due to damage in a small area of the frontal lobe (Broca’s Area)

148
Q

What did Carl Wernicke contribute to our understanding of the brain?

A

Described a patient who had impaired language comprehension, but could still produce speech, associated with damage to an area in the upper left temporal lobe (Wernicke’s Area)

149
Q

How was Phineas Gage important to scientists’ understanding of the brain?

A
  • Railroad worker who suffered an injury where a metal rod pierced through his skull
  • His personality change after the accident allowed researchers to investigate the hypothesis that the frontal lobe is involved in emotion regulation, planning, and decision making
  • Were also able to better understand how the amygdala, hippocampus, and related brain structures interact with the cerebral cortex
150
Q

What is a split-brain procedure, and what happens to a person when one is performed?

A
  • The severing of the corpus callosum to prevent seizures in one hemisphere of the brain from travelling to the other side and creating a feedback loop
  • Does not affect everyday behaviour, but specialized areas that are only on one side of the brain are unable to communicate across the hemispheres, meaning that only the side of the body controlled by that hemisphere can complete these tasks
  • Example: if a person holds a key without seeing it, they would be able to demonstrate how to use it since the same hemisphere controls the hand and hold information about the object; however, the person would not be able to name what is in their hand because the production of speech is controlled by the other hemisphere
151
Q

What is an Electroencephalograph (EEG)?

A

A device used to record electrical activity in the brain; electrodes placed on the head amplify electrical signals of activity in the synapses and action potentials to provide a visual record of the activity

152
Q

What are single-cell recordings? What did they lead to the discovery of?

A
  • Electrodes inserted into the brain observe patterns of action potentials in individual neurons
  • Led to the discovery of feature detectors; neurons in the visual cortex that selectively respond to certain aspects of a visual image (contrast, shape, colour, etc.)
153
Q

What is structural brain imaging? What are the 3 different types?

A

Provides information about the basic structure of the brain and allows clinicians or researchers to see abnormalities in brain tissue

  1. CT scan
  2. MRI
  3. Diffuser tensor imaging (DTI)
154
Q

What is computerized axial tomography (CT)?

A

A scanner rotates a device around someone’s head and takes a series of x-rays from different angles; computer programs combine these images and provide views of the brain from any angle; denser tissues appear more white and less dense tissues (tumours, lesions, etc.) appear more black

155
Q

What is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?

A

Uses a strong magnetic field to line up the nuclei of specific molecules in the brain tissue, then uses radio waves to rotate out of alignment; when the nuclei snap back into life, they give off a small amount of energy which is picked up by a detector; different molecules have unique energy signatures

156
Q

What is diffuser tensor imaging (DTI)?

A

A new type of MRI used to visualize white matter pathways, which connect regions of the brain together; used to assess direction and rate of diffusion/movement as well as the integrity of the white matter pathway

157
Q

What is the Human Connectome Project?

A

A collaborative effort by American and British scientists with the goal of providing a complete map of the connectivity of neural pathways in the brain

158
Q

What does function brain imaging do, and what are the 2 main types?

A

Provides information about the activity of the brain while people perform various kinds of cognitive or motor tasks; detects changes in blood flow that indicate activated brain areas

  1. Positron emission tomography (PET)
  2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
159
Q

What is positron emission tomography (PET)?

A

A radioactive substance is injected into a person’s bloodstream and the brain is scanned by radiation detectors; more active areas of the brain demand more blood flow and therefore the detectors will pick up more radiation

160
Q

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A

Detects the difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin, allowing it to sense which areas of the brain are more active and demanding oxygenated blood

161
Q

Why is it important to not jump to conclusions based on fMRI results?

A
  • We don’t know if lab studies generalize to more complex everyday events
  • Evidence from fMRI studies is averaged across groups of participants, not for individuals
162
Q

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation?

A

A way to temporarily mimic brain damage, with no harmful side effects, using magnetic pulses that deactivate neurons in the cerebral cortex for a short period

163
Q

What does grey matter consist of?

A

Cell bodies and dendrites

164
Q

What does white matter consist of?

A

Myelinated axons

PSYC1020 - Midterm 2 (3 decks)

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