Ch 3 Key Concepts Flashcards
Classical conditioning
Also known as Pavlovian conditioning. A behaviourist perspective of learning which states that learning is a consequence of combining a conditional stimulus with an unconditional stimulus which is outside the control of the animal. Pavlov discovered that animals display an innate reflex (e.g.salivation), termed unconditional response [UCR], in reaction to a unconditional stimulus [UCS] (e.g. food). Through further contingency experimentation he found that in repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus [NS] (e.g. bell) with a conditional stimulus [CS] (e.g. food), an animal evokes a conditional response [CR] (e.g. salivation). The reflex that links the bell and salivation response is known as a conditional reflex. Classical conditioning is an example of the comparative approach as Watson considered this effect on an infant in his Little Albert study. The NS of a rat paired with the UCS of a loud noise, became a CS evoking the CR of fear. In terms of learning, classical conditioning could be considered a stimulus response association. Alternatively it could be explained as an expectancy. Classical conditioning is important because it contributes to our understanding of learning and how it can happen without awareness or intention to learn. From a historical perspective it’s important as Watson challenged the view of introspectionism and emphasized objective measurable data. It is also valuable for its use in therapy to desensitize in the treatment of phobias.
Behaviourism
Proposed by Watson in response to the views of psychology at the beginning of the 20th century - he found introspection was unscientific. He wanted to make psychology comparable to science, like biology or physics and adopt objective scientific methods such as observation and measurement. As mental states are internal, they are not observable, therefore he sought to observe behaviour. Watson suggested that human behaviour was more environmental than innate. He used a comparative approach in which he studied on rats and pigeons and extrapolated to humans. This perspective focused on learning in terms of classical and instrumental/operant conditioning. The Behaviourism perspective is considered hugely influential with practical applications such as behaviour modification and treating phobias. It has been criticized for ignoring cognition and other internal processes such as expectancy and the issue of innate biases in terms of what is learned.
Operant conditioning
A comparative approach, Pioneered by BF Skinner. Operant conditioning is a type of instrumental conditioning in which learning is the result of an association formed between behaviour and it’s consequences, and studied in a Skinner box, to control all variables. The law of effect states that behaviour which has a positive consequence will be learned. For example, if lever pressing delivers food to a hungry rat, food is a positive reinforcement and lever processing is likely to be repeated. Behaviour can be shaped through reinforcement of consecutive approximations to a desired outcome. Behaviour resulting in the removal of something aversive, e.g. pressing a lever stops an electric shock, is negatively reinforced. Punishment is established when something aversive follows as a consequence of behaviour and lowers the probability of the behaviour occurring again. Skinner considered learning over the lifetime of an individual to be comparable to evolution in that the natural world permits better adaptation to the environment. Studies using a Skinner box have established these principals in animals and they apply equally to humans, which have been used successfully in behaviour modification programmes. Although effective in changing behaviour, it has been criticized for ignoring cognitive processes in changing behaviour and for lack of ecological validity in highly controlled environments.
Category learning
A cognitive approach to learning, in which learning is seen as information processing. It suggests that humans learn concepts in forms such as attributes and categories. Bruner et al suggested that the underlying mechanism of category learning is hypothesis testing in which people use successive scanning (testing 1 category at a time) and conservative focusing (eliminating classes of hypotheses); the latter being faster. As this study used abstract material it could be criticized for lacking ecological validity. While Bruner found that meaningful info interfered with underlying processes, Murphy & Allopenna found that in using meaningful material, that relevant background knowledge linked attributes thematically. The induction problem challenges the idea of hypothesis testing as past experiences are not always reliable. Fodor and Chomsky argue that category knowledge is innate. This view can be criticized as knowledge develops and changes therefore learning must be involved, however it could be that F & C are suggesting that some forms of learning are tapping an innate ability, but not necessarily categorical. Category learning is valuable in emphasizing the role of cognitive processes in learning and demonstrating the influence of past experience. It also suggests that there may be different aspects to learning.
Socio-cultural perspective
Learning involves the use of cultural tools, i.e. physical tools; computers or psychological tools (e.g. language & rules) and artefacts, embedded in the context of interpersonal relationships which are further ingrained in social and cultural systems. It focuses on the ways in which context and culture facilitates or constrains learning opportunities. Mediated action is the interplay between learner and tools, in particular language. Tools are associated with the distribution of power and authority within a culture, in terms of opportunity and equity. Appropriation refers to making tools one’s own as a way to understand the world and interact with others. Learning is a process of enculturation in which people adopt specific cultural practices and behave in ways consistent to cultural norms. Social interaction is central to learning, in that meaning is jointly constructed between learners. Research has been done on interpersonal exchanges in which Mercer explored how children construct understanding through talk. The sociocultural perspective offers a more encompassing view of learning than the cognitive and behaviourist perspectives and emphasises practical applications and educational interventions.
