Ch 3: Defining and Measuring Variables

Question 1

Theory

Answer 1

• statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.
• A good theory generates predictions about the behavior.

Question 2

Constructs

Answer 2

are hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory.

Question 3

Operational Defintion

Answer 3

• procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.
• specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct.

Question 4

What term is used for a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly but is useful for describing and explaining behavior?

Answer 4

Construct

Question 5

What is the goal of an operational definition?

Answer 5

To provide a definition and a method for measuring a hypothetical construct

Question 6

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using an operational definition?

Answer 6

may not be an accurate reflection of the construct.

Question 7

A positive relationship is

Answer 7

the two measurements change together in the same direction.

Question 8

A negative relationship is

Answer 8

the two measurements change in opposite directions

Question 9

Validity is

Answer 9

the degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure.

Question 10

Face validity

Answer 10

when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure.

Question 11

Concurrent validity

Answer 11

scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable.

Question 12

Predictive validity

Answer 12

when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory.

Question 13

Construct validity

Answer 13

• requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself.
• based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence.

Question 14

Convergent validity

Answer 14

is demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct.

Question 15

Divergent validity

Answer 15

is demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs.

Question 16

Reliability is

Answer 16

• The reliability of a measurement procedure is the stability or consistency of the measurement.
• If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure produces identical (or nearly identical) measurements.

Question 17

observer error is

Answer 17

The individual who makes the measurements can introduce simple human error into the measurement process, especially when the measurement involves a degree of human judgment.

Question 18

environmental changes is

Answer 18

• small changes in the environment from one measurement to another, and these small changes can influence the measurements.
• time of day, temperature, weather conditions, and lighting
• essentially impossible to obtain two identical environmental conditions.

Question 19

participant changes is

Answer 19

• The participant can change between measurements.
• A person’s degree of focus and attention can change quickly and can have a dramatic effect on measures of reaction time.

Question 20

test-retest reliability

Answer 20

is established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.

Question 21

inter-rater reliability

Answer 21

is the degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.

Question 22

split-half reliability

Answer 22

Splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half,
and then calculating the degree of consistency between the 2 scores for a group of participants.

Question 23

Research results indicate that the more time individuals spend watching educational television programs as preschool children, the higher their high school grades will be. What kind of relationship exists between educational TV and high school grades?

Answer 23

Positive

Question 24

A research study reports that participants who scored high on a new test measuring self- esteem made eye contact during an interview, whereas participants who scored low on the test avoided eye contact. Assuming that more eye contact is associated with higher self-esteem, what kind of validity is being demonstrated?

Answer 24

predictive

Question 25

Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between validity and reliability?

Answer 25

Measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable.

Question 26

A nominal scale

Answer 26

- allow us to determine whether 2 individuals are the same or different, but they do not permit any quantitative comparison. - A nominal scale can tell us only that a difference exists. - classifying people by race, political affiliation, or occupation

Question 27

A ordinal scale

Answer 27

- Have different names and are organized in an ordered series. - consists of a series of ranks (first, second, third, and so on) like the order of finish in a horse race. - tells us the direction of the difference (which is more and which is less) - socioeconomic class upper, middle and lower and t-shirt sizes small, medium, and large

Question 28

A interval scale

Answer 28

- has an arbitrary zero point. - that is, the value 0 is assigned to a particular location on the scale simply as a matter of convenience or reference. - we can determine the direction and the magnitude of a difference.

Question 29

A ratio scale

Answer 29

- is characterized by a zero point that is NOT an arbitrary location. - Instead, the value 0 on a ratio scale is a meaningful point representing none (a complete absence) of the variable being measured. - allow us to determine the direction, the magnitude, and the ratio of the difference

Question 30

An elementary school teacher separates students into high, medium, and low reading skill groups. What scale of measurement is being used to create the groups?

Answer 30

Ordinal

Question 31

After measuring a set of individuals, a researcher finds that Bob’s score is three times greater than Jane’s score. What scale of measurement is being used?

Answer 31

Ratio

Question 32

What additional information is obtained by measuring on an interval scale compared to an ordinal scale?

Answer 32

The SIZE of the differences

Question 33

Using a PET scan to measure brain activity while participants solve mathematics problems is an example of using what modality of measurement?

Answer 33

Physiological

Question 34

``` Using an anonymous questionnaire to determine how many times students send or receive text messages during class is an example of using what modality of measurement? ```

Answer 34

Self-report

Question 35

Counting the number of times a third-grade student leaves his or her seat without permission during a 30-minute observation period is an example of using what modality of measurement?

Answer 35

Behavioral

Question 36

ceiling effect

Answer 36

is the clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value.

Question 37

floor effect

Answer 37

is the clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value.

Question 38

experimenter bias

Answer 38

occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study.

Question 39

single-blind

Answer 39

A research study is single-blind if the researcher does not know the predicted outcome.

Question 40

double-blind

Answer 40

A research study is double-blind if both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome

Question 41

demand characteristics

Answer 41

refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is and (2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

Question 42

reactivity

Answer 42

occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured.

Question 43

Why is the range effect known as a “ceiling effect” a problem for researchers?

Answer 43

The scores are already so high that there is no chance of measuring improvement.

Question 44

Why is an artifact like experimenter bias a threat to the validity of measurement?

Answer 44

The measurements may be distorted by the artifact.

Question 45

Which of the following describes participants taking on the negativistic subject role?

Answer 45

They try to act so that their data are in contrast to the hypothesis.