Ch. 3 - Anatomy & Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Neuroanatomy
A
The anatomy of the nervous system
2
Q
Central Nervous System (CNS)
A
Is the brain and the spinal cord
3
Q
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
A
- Connects the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body (ie. the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord)
- Part of the PNS is the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
4
Q
Somatic Nervous System
A
- Part of the PNS
- Consists of the axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles (ie. controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the CNS)
5
Q
Autonomic Nervous System
A
- Part of the PNS
- Controls the heart, intestines, and other organs (ie. controls involuntary muscles)
- Has 2 parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
6
Q
Dorsal
A
Means towards the back
7
Q
Ventral
A
Means towards the stomach
8
Q
Anterior
A
Toward the front end
9
Q
Posterior
A
Toward the rear end
10
Q
Superior
A
Above another part
11
Q
Inferior
A
Below another part
12
Q
Lateral
A
Toward the side, away from the midline
13
Q
Medial
A
Toward the midline, away from the side
14
Q
Proximal
A
Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment
15
Q
Distal
A
Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment
16
Q
Ipsilateral
A
On the same side of the body (ex. two parts on the left or two on the right)
17
Q
Contralateral
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On the opposite sides of the body (ex. one on the left and one on the right)
18
Q
Coronal plane (or frontal plane)
A
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the FRONT
19
Q
Sagittal plane
A
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the SIDE
20
Q
Horizontal plane
A
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from ABOVE
21
Q
Dorsal roots (axon bundles)
A
Enter the spinal cord carrying SENSORY information
22
Q
Ventral roots
A
Exit the spinal cord carrying MOTOR information
23
Q
Dorsal root ganglia
A
The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord
24
Q
Ganglion
A
- A cluster of neurons
- In most cases, a neuron cluster outside the CNS (ie. outside the brain and spinal cord) is called a ganglion
- A cluster inside the CNS is called a nucleus
25
Gray matter & White matter
- In the center of the spinal cord
- Densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites
- Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or to other parts of the spinal cord through the white matter, containing myelinated axons
- GREY matter = composed largely of cell bodies
- WHITE matter = consists of axons
26
Sympathetic Nervous System
- A network of nerves that prepare the organs for a burst of vigorous activity (ie. prepare for "fight or flight")
- It's axons release norepinephrine, although a few, such as those on the sweat glands release aacetylcholine
27
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- AKA the "rest and digest" system
- Facilitates vegetative, non-emergency responses
- AKA the craniosacral system, because it consists of the crainial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord
- **Decreases heart rate, increases digestive rate, conserves energy**
- It's axons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
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Brainstem
-Consists of the medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain
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Medulla (Medulla oblongata)
- Can be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord
- The head and the organs connect to the medulla and adjacent areas by 12 CRANIAL NERVES (one of each pair on the right side and one on the left)
30
Cranial nerves
- The cranial nerves originating in the medulla control vital reflexes such as:
- breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing
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Pons
- Lies anterior (toward the front) and ventral (toward the stomach) to the medulla
- "Pons" is Latin for "bridge", reflecting that axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord so that the left hemisphere controls the muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left muscles of the body
32
Cerebellum
- A large structure in the hindbrain with many deep folds
- Contributes to the control of movement, balance and coordination, timing (ie. rythym), and shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli
- Also critical for certain types of learning and conditioning
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Midbrain
-Early in development it is in the middle, but in adult mammals it is dwarfed and surrounded by the forebrain
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Tectum
-The roof of the midbrain
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Superior and inferior colliculus
- The swellings on each side of the tectum
- Both are important for sensory processing
- Inferior colliculus = for hearing
- Superior colliculus = for vision
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Tegmentum
- Lies under the tectum (the tectum covers the tegmentum)
| - Part of the midbrain
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Substantia nigra
- Part of the midbrain
| - Gives rise to dopamine-containing pathways that help with readiness for movement
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Forebrain
- Consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on the right
- Each hemisphere receives sensory information mostly from the contralateral (opposite) side of the body
- Controls the muscles on that opposite side of the body
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Cerebral cortex
-Is the outer portion of the forebrain
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Limbic system
- Several interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem
- Includes: the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus
-Controls eating, drinking, temperature control, and reproductive behaviours
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Amygdala
-Evaluates emotional information, especially with regard to fear
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Hypothalamus
- A small area near the base of the brain just ventral (toward the stomach) to the thalamus.
- Conveys messages to the pituitary gland, altering its release of hormones
- Damage to the hypothalamus leads to abnormalities in motivated behaviours, such as feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behaviour, fighting, or activity level
44
Pituitary gland
- An endocrine (hormone-producing)
- In response to messages from the hypothalamus, the pituitary synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs throughout the body
45
Basal ganglia
- A group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus
- Includes 3 major structures: the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus
- Damage to the basal ganglia impairs movement (ex. Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease)
- The basal ganglia is also critical for learned skills and habits, as well as other types of learning tht develop gradually with extended experience
46
Nucleus basalis
- Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia and sends axons that release acetylcholine to widespread areas in the cerebral cortex
- A key part in the brain's system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention
47
Hippocampus
- A large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain
- Essential for certain types of memories, especially memories for individual events
- Also essential for monitoring where you are and where you are going
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Ventricles
-4 fluid-filled cavities within the brain
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Meninges
Membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord
50
The prefrontal cortex has 3 major regions...
1. The posterior portion: Mostly associated with movement
2. The middle zone: Pertains to working memory (ability to remember recent events), cognitive control, and emotional reactions.
3. The anterior zone: Important for making decisions, evaluating which of several courses of action is likely to achieve the best outcome
51
Damage to the prefrontal cortex causes...
- Impulsive decisions
- apathy
- loss of the ability to plan and take initiative
- memory disorders
- distractability
- loss of emotional expressions
52
Binding problem
-The question of how various brain areas produce a perception of a single object (ie. how we connect activities in different brain areas, such as sights and sounds)
-How does binding occur?
It occurs if you perceive two sensations happening at the same time and in approximately the same place
53
Occipital Lobe of the cortex
-Is primarily responsible for vision
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Parietal lobe
- Processes body sensations
- Is essential for spatial information and numerical information
- Monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement
- The postcentral gyrus contains 4 representations of the body
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Temporal lobe
- Primary target for auditory information
- Left temporal lobe is essential for understanding spoken language
- Contributes to hearing, complex aspects of visions, and processing of emotional information
- Object and face recognition
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Frontal lobe
- Includes the PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX and the PREFRONTAL CORTEX
- The precentral gyrus is the posterior (back) part of the frontal lobe, specializes in the control of fine mvoements, such as moving a finger
- Includes the precentral gyrus, which controls fine movement. It also includes the prefrontal cortex
57
Prefrontal cortex
-Is important for planning actions, working memory, certain aspects of emotion, and decision making
58
Ablation
- Is the removal of a brain area, generally with a surgical knife
- Because surgical removal is difficult for tiny structures below the surface of the brain, researchers sometimes make a LESION, meaning damage, by means of a STEREOTAXIC INSTRUMENT, a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain.
59
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
- The application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the scalp, can stimulate neurons in the area below the magnet, if the stimulation is sufficiently brief and mild
- With stronger stimulation it inactivates the neurons, producing a "virtual lesion" that outlasts the magnetic stimulation itself
- This method allows researchers to study behaviour with some brain area active, then inactive, then active again.
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Lesion vs ablation
-A lesion is damage to the structure, whereas an ablation is removal of the structure
61
What determines whether optogenetics stimulation excites a neuron or inhibits it?
-Optogenetics stimulation activates a light-sensitive protein. If that protein opens a sodium channel in the membrane, the result is excitation of the neuron. If it opens a chloride channel, the result is inhibition.
62
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
-Records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes, ranging from just a few to hundreds attached to the scalp
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Magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
-Measures the faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity
64
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
-Provides a high resolution image of activity in a living brain by recording the emission of radioactivity from injected chemicals
65
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
-Standard MRI scans record the energy released by water molecules after removal of a magnetic field. An fMRI is a modified version of MRI based on hemoglobin (the blood protein that binds oxygen) instead of water
