Ch 2: Adler: Individual Psychology Flashcards
individual psychology
presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the notion of social interest (feeling of oneness with al human kind)
Freud vs Adler
history and differences
Adler was an original member of Freud’s psychoanalytic group, but he never saw himself as a disciple or a follower of Freud. If fact, throughout his life he carried with him the note Freud had sent to him proposing the establishment of an organization of physicians. Adler saw the invitation as Freud’s recognition of Adler as an equal. After Adler broke from that group, he built a theory of personality that was nearly diametrically opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud’s view of humanity was pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler’s view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family experiences.
- Adler saw people as being motivated by social influences and by their striving for superiority or success (rather than by sex and aggression)
- Adler believed people are largely responsible for who they are (Freud little to no choice in shaping personality)
- Adler believed present behaviour is shaped by people’s views of future (Freud present behaviour is result of past experiences)
- Adler believed psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why doing it (opposes Freuds emphasis on unconscious)
Biography of Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a second son of middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician (Adler almost died at age of 5, this along with death of younger brother motivated Adler to become a physician), and in 1902, he became a charter member of Freud’s organization. However, personal and professional differences between the two men led to Adler’s departure from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911 (opposition to strong sexual proclivities of psychoanalysis and suggested drive for superiority was a more basic motive than sexuality). Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology. Adler’s strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insightful ability to understand family dynamics. He was not a gifted writer, a limitation that may have prevented him from attaining world recognition equal to that of Freud.
- WWI affected Adler financially, suggested that social interest and compassion could be cornerstones of human motivation
- moved to USA, taught at several universities
- married Raissa Epstein (early feminist)
- patients high percentage of people from lower and middle classes
- optimistic attitude towards human condition, competitive coupled with friendly congeniality, strong belief in basic gender equality, advocated for women’s rights
Adlerian Theory Introduction
-main tenets of Adlerian theory
- Although Adler’s individual psychology is both complex and comprehensive, its main tenets can be stated in simple form
- people born with weak inferior bodies a condition that leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence on other people, therefore a feeling of unity with others (social interest) is inherent in people and the ultimate standard for psychological health
Main tenets:
- The one dynamic force behind people’s behaviour is the striving for success or superority
- People’s subjective perceptions shape their behaviour and personality
- Personality is unified and self consistent
- The Value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest
- The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
- Style of life is molded by people’s creative power
- Striving for success or superiority
A. The Final Goal
B. The Striving Force as Compensation
C. Striving for Personal Superiority
D. Striving for Success
(more detail in notes)
The sole dynamic force behind people’s actions is the striving for success or superiority.
- everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that activate feelings of inferiority (feelings that motivate a person to strive for wither superiority or success
- superiority: for those who strive for personal superiority over others
- success: to describe actions of people motivated by highly developed social interestA. The Final Goal
The final goal of success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior meaningful.
-goal (fictional, constructed out of raw materials of heredity and environment) it is product of the creative power (people’s ability to freely shape their behaviour and create their own personality)
-4 or 5 years old creative power developed enough to set final goal (reduces pain of inferiority feelings)
->if child feels neglected or pampered their goal remains largely unconscious
->if child experiences love and security they will set a goal that is largely conscious and clearly understood
B. The Striving Force as Compensation
Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. The striving force can take one of two courses—personal gain (superiority) or community benefit (success).
-start process at 4 or 5 years old by setting a direction to the striving force and establishing goal (superiority or success), goal provides guidelines for motivations, shaping psychological development and giving it aim
-although creative power swayed by forces of heredity and enviro it is ultimately responsible for people’s personality
C. Striving for Personal Superiority Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people. Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic motivation is personal benefit. -motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority or the presence of an inferiority complex (exaggerated feelings of inferiority, which usually interfere with socially useful solutions to life's problems) eg murderers, thieves, con artists D. Striving for Success In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so without losing their personal identity. -their own success is not gained at the expense of others but is a natural tendency to move towards completion or perfection -social progress more important than personal credit (sense of worth is tied closely to their contributions to human society)
- Subjective Perceptions
A. Fictionalism
B. Physical inferiorities
Subjective Perceptions
People’s subjective view of the world—not reality—shapes their behaviour and personality.
-people strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority but the manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions or expectation of the future
A. Fictionalism Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes. (final purpose or aim; people motivated by present perceptions of the future (as fictions these oerections need not be conscious or understood)) -subjective fictional final goal guides our style of life and gives unity to our personality -people are motivated not by what is true but by their subjective perceptions of what is true (eg men superior to women) B. Physical Inferiorities Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with physical inferiorities, which stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion. -begin life as weak and inferior, develop diction or belief system about how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become bug, strong and superior. -some people compensate by moving towards psychological health and a useful style of life, others over compensate and motivated to subdue or retreat from other people -physical deficits motivate future goals, motivation is unified and self consistent
- Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
A. Organ Dialect
-define
B. Conscious and Unconscious
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
-personality is unified and self consistent
Adler believed that all behaviours are directed toward a single goal and serve a single purpose. When seen in the light of that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviours can be seen as operating in a self-consistent manner (any seemingly contradictory probably unconscious attempt to confuse and subordinate other people, gives upper hand in interpersonal relationships)
-each person indivisible and unique
A. Organ Dialect People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called organ dialect, or organ jargon. -aka the deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual goal (organ dialect) -through organ dialect the bodies organs "speak a language which is usually more expressive and discloses the individuals opinion more clearly than words are able to do" B. Conscious and Unconscious Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of our goal that is not clearly formulated or completely understood by individual is unconscious; conscious thoughts are those that are understood and regarded by the individual as helpful in striving for success (unconscious not helpful) *different that study guide?? -two cooperating parts of same system
- Social interest
- define
A. Origins of Social interest
B. Importance of social interest
-the value of all human activity must be seen from the view point of social interest
Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all of humanity (it implies membership in the social community of all people.)
->social interest translated from German work Gemeinschaftsgefühl (a person with this well-developed will strive not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in an ideal community)
->whether people’s behaviour lead to a healthy or unhealthy style of life depends on the degree of social interest that they developed during childhood years
-social interest is the natural condition of human species and adhesive that binds society together; it is necessary for perpetuating the human species
A. Origins of Social Interest Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social environment (before it can contribute to a useful style of life). Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity. (social enviro can modify or shape child's personality) -Mother: job is to develop a bond that encourages the child's mature social interest and foster a sense of cooperation (ideal Mother deep rooted love for child, centred around loved for child not own wants and needs, healthy love relationships) -->mother learned to love and received love=broadened child's social interest -->mother favours child over father=child pampered and spoiled -->mother favours husband or society=child feels neglected and unloved -Father: must bring caring attitude towards wife as well as to other people (ideal Father cooperated equally with Mother caring for child and treating child as human being, successful father avoids dual errors of emotional detachment and paternal authoritarianism) ->father emotional detachment: child warped sense of social interest, neglect, parasitic attachment to Mother, goal of personal superiority ->paternal authoritarianism: may also lead to an unhealthy style of life, strive for power and personal superiority B. Importance of Social Interest According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all one's actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity could not have survived without cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.
- Style of Life
-the self-consistent personality structure develop’s into a person’s style of life
The manner of a person’s striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of age.
However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible and diverse behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of life (styles of life that are complex, enriched and changing).
- > socially useful style of life, express social interest through action, they actively struggle to solve Adler’s 3 major problems in life (neighbourly love, sexual love and occupation) they do so through cooperation and willingness to make a contribution to the welfare of another
- psychologically unhealthy: lead inflexible lives that are marked by an inability to choose new ways to react to their environment
- style of life: refers to the flavour of a person’s life, includes person’s goals, self -concept, feelings for others and attitude towards the world
- > product of the interaction of: heredity, environment and person’s creative power
6 Creative Power
Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment—the building blocks of personality—but ultimately style of life is shaped by people’s creative power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a course of action.
- > creative power places them in control of their own lives and is responsible for their final goal, determines method striving for goal and contributes to development of social interest
- primary importance not what given but how put materials to use (heredity and environment=bricks, mortar to build personality, architectural design=personal own style; we are our own architect and can build either useful or useless style of life)
- eg analogy “law of the low door” (creative power bend down, neurotics bump head)
Abnormal Development
A. General Description
B. External Factors in Maladjustment
C. Safeguarding Tendencies
D. Masculine Protect
Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their own personalities. Thus, each of us is free to choose either a useful or a useless style of life.
A. General Description
The most important factor in abnormal development is lack of social interest. In addition, people with a useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) have a rigid and dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in their own private world.
-failure in life because over concerned with self, little care for other
-these people find everyday to be hard work, requiring great effort
B. External Factors in Maladjustment Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical defects, which do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but which may contribute to it by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority ->these subjective feelings may be greatly encouraged by a defective body but they are the progeny of the creative power) ->overcompensate for their inadequacy, overly concerned with self, convinced life problems only solved in selfish manner (2) a pampered style of life, which contributes to an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with the mother or a mother substitute -weak social interest -expect others to look after them, overprotect them and satisfy needs -characterized: extreme discouragement, indecisiveness, over sensitivity, impatience, exaggerated emotion (especially anxiety) -believe entitled to be first in everything, feel unloved, may also feel neglected (fearful when separated from parent) (3) a neglected style of life, which leads to distrust of other people -abused and mistreated children develop little social interest and tend to create a neglected style of life. -little confidence in themselves; tend to overestimate difficulties connected with life's major problems -see society as enemy country, feel alienated and strong sense of envy towards success of others C. Safeguarding Tendencies Both normal and neurotic people create symptoms as a means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic life style and protect a person from public disgrace. -safe-guarding tendencies: protective devices the enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current style of life The three principal safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses (more common), which allow people to preserve their artificially inflated sense of personal worth and deceive people into believing they are more superior then they really are (2) aggression, (use to safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex) which may take the form of depreciation (undervaluing others' accomplishments and over value one's own eg criticism, gossip), accusation (blame others for one's own failures and seek revenge), or self-accusation (self torture and guilt, some people use self torture (including masochism, depression and suicide) as means of hurting people who are close to them); and (3) withdrawal (personality development can be halted when people run away from difficulties; some people unconsciously escape life's problems by setting up distance between themselves and those problems), which can be expressed by psychologically moving backward (tendency to safe guard one's fictional goal of superiority by psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life, designed to elicit sympathy), standing still (do not move in any direction thus they avoid all responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure safeguard self esteem), hesitating (some people hesitate or vacillate when faced with difficult problems, often given excuse "its too late now", Adler believed most compulsive behaviours are attempts to waste time; may seems self-defeating but allows neurotic individuals to preserve their inflated self esteem), or constructing obstacles (least severe of withdrawal safe guarding, by overcoming obstacle they protect their self-esteem and their prestige, if fail to hurtle barrier can always resort to an excuse D. Masculine Protest Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a condition Adler called the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology but on historical developments and social learning. Boys are often taught early that being masculine means being courageous, strong, and dominant. The ultimate accomplishment for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be on top. In contrast, girls often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society. In contrast to Adler's more democratic attitude, Freud believed that anatomy is destiny and that women occupy the 'dark continent" of psychology. Near the end of his life, Freud was still asking what women wanted. According to Adler, Freud's attitudes toward women would be evidence of a person with a strong masculine protest. In contrast to Freud's views on women, Adler assumed that women—because they have the same physiological and psychological needs as men—want more or less the same things that men want. ->(views magnified in women the two chose to marry)
Comparison of Safeguarding Tendencies with Defense Mechanisms
Adler's Safeguarding tendencies
1. Limited mostly to the construction of a neurotic style of life
2. Protect person's fragile self-esteem from public disgrace
3. Can be party conscious
4. Common types include:
A. excuses
B. aggression
(1) depreciation
(2) accusation
(3)self-accusation
C. withdrawal
(1) moving backward
(2) standing still
(3) hesitating
(4) constructing obstacles
Freud's Defense Mechanisms 1.Found in everyone 2. Protect the ego from the pain of anxiety 3. Operate only on an unconscious level 4. Common types include: A. repression B. reaction formation C. displacement D. fixation E. regression F. projection G. introjection H. sublimation
Applications of Individual Psychology
A. Family Constellation
B. Early Recollection
C. Dreams
D. Psychotherapy
Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family constellation, early recollections, dreams, and psychotherapy.
A. Family Constellation
Adler believed that people’s perception of how they fit into their family is related to their style of life. He claimed that firstborns are likely to have strong feelings of power and superiority, to be overprotective, and to have more than their share of anxiety. Secondborn children (such as Adler) are likely to have strong social interest, provided they do not get trapped trying to overcome their older sibling. Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence, whereas only children have some of the characteristics of both the oldest and the youngest child. (more details in notes)
B. Early Recollections A more reliable method of determining style of life is to ask people for their earliest recollections. Adler believed that early memories are templates on which people project their current style of life. These recollections need not be accurate accounts of early event, but true or false, they have psychological importance because they reflect a person's current view of the world. C. Dreams Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems. However, dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another person. -Adler applied the golden rule of individual psychology to dream work "everything can be different", if one interpretation does not feel right try another -the more an individual's goal is inconsistent with reality the more likely the person's dreams will be used for self-deception D. Psychotherapy -Adlerian theory postulates that psychopathology results from lack of courage, exaggerated feeling of inferiority and underdeveloped social interest, purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority and encourage social interest through humour and warmth. The goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. To ensure that the patient's social interest will eventually generalize to other relationships, the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role. -task not easy, overcome resistance to change Adler sometimes ask patients "what would you do if I cured you immediately", usually forced patient to examine their goals and see that responsibility for their current misery rest with them -motto "everyone can accomplish everything" -believed warm, naturing attitude by therapist encourages patient to expand social interest to each of 3 problems of life: sexual love, friendship and occupation -Adler unique method of therapy with problem children to treat in front of audience (parents and teachers etc), when in public more readily understand that their problems are community problems and believed it would increase social interest; Adler careful not to blame parents instead worked to win parent's confidence and persuade them to change their attitudes towards the child -therapist relationship awakens social interest, once happens must spread to friends and family
Adler’s View of Some Possible Traits by Birth Order
-positive and negative traits
Oldest Child
- positive: nurturing and protective of others, good organizer
- negative: highly anxious, exaggerated feelings of power, unconscious hostility, fights for acceptance, must always be right whereas others are always wrong, highly critical of others, uncooperative
Second Child
- positive: highly motivated, cooperative, moderately competitive
- negative: highly competitive, easily discouraged
Youngest Child
- positive: realistically ambitious
- negative: pampered style of life, dependent on others, wants to excel in everything, unrealistically ambitious
Only Child
- positive: socially mature
- negative: exaggerated feelings of superiority, low feelings of cooperations, inflated sense of self, pampered style of life
Related Research
- birth order effects
- early recollections and career choice
- early childhood and health related issues
Birth order effects
- Frank Sulloway: 1st borns achievement orientated and anxious, later born tend to be more adventurous, innovative etc (criticized methodology)
- generally “between family” research designs tend not to confirm Adler’s theory but within family designs tend to confirm theory
- Ecksteir 2010 (review of birth order studies) found 1st borns high-achieving while later-borns rebellious and socially interested
Although family constellation and birth order have been widely researched, topics more pertinent to Adlerian theory are early recollections and career choice. For example, research by Jon Kasler and Ofra Nevo (2005) found that early childhood recollections did match career types in adulthood, which is consistent with Adler’s view.
Adler’s theory of inferiority, superiority, and social feeling can be applied to health-related behaviors such as eating disorders and binge drinking. For example, Susan Belangee (2006) found that dieting, overeating, and bulimia are unhealthy ways of compensating for feelings of inferiority. Moreover, eating disorders suggest that a person’s Gemeinschaftsgefühl or social feeling is out of whack. Recently, Teresa Laird and Andrea Shelton (2006) examined binge drinking and birth order among college students. They found youngest children in a family significantly more likely to binge drink than older children. The researchers explained this using Adlerian theory, in that youngest children are more likely to be dependent, and dependent people are more likely to cope with stress by heavy drinking.
Some evidence exists that early recollections change through the course of counseling. For example, Gary Savill and Daniel Eckstein (1987) found significant changes in both mental status and early recollections for a therapy group, but not for people in a control group. Similarly, Jane Statton and Bobbie Wilborn (1991) found that recollections of preadolescent children changed after receiving therapy, whereas those of a control group did not. These results tend to support Adler’s teleological approach to personality, in that early childhood experiences are less important than adults’ views of those experiences.
